DIY Organic Potting Mix's for Grass - Ace Spicoli

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Work functions of elements​

The work function depends on the configurations of atoms at the surface of the material. For example, on polycrystalline silver the work function is 4.26 eV, but on silver crystals it varies for different crystal faces as (100) face: 4.64 eV, (110) face: 4.52 eV, (111) face: 4.74 eV.[13] Ranges for typical surfaces are shown in the table below.[14]

Work function of elements (eV)

Ag​	4.26 – 4.74	Al​	4.06 – 4.26	As​	3.75
Au​	5.10 – 5.47	B​	~4.45	Ba​	2.52 – 2.70
Be​	4.98	Bi​	4.31	C​	~5
Ca​	2.87	Cd​	4.08	Ce​	2.9
Co​	5	Cr​	4.5	Cs​	1.95
Cu​	4.53 – 5.10	Eu​	2.5	Fe:​	4.67 – 4.81
Ga​	4.32	Gd​	2.90	Hf​	3.90
Hg​	4.475	In​	4.09	Ir​	5.00 – 5.67
K​	2.29	La​	3.5	Li​	2.9
Lu​	~3.3	Mg​	3.66	Mn​	4.1
Mo​	4.36 – 4.95	Na​	2.36	Nb​	3.95 – 4.87
Nd​	3.2	Ni​	5.04 – 5.35	Os​	5.93
Pb​	4.25	Pd​	5.22 – 5.60	Pt​	5.12 – 5.93
Rb​	2.261	Re​	4.72	Rh​	4.98
Ru​	4.71	Sb​	4.55 – 4.70	Sc​	3.5
Se​	5.9	Si​	4.60 – 4.85	Sm​	2.7
Sn​	4.42	Sr​	~2.59	Ta​	4.00 – 4.80
Tb​	3.00	Te​	4.95	Th​	3.4
Ti​	4.33	Tl​	~3.84	U​	3.63 – 3.90
V​	4.3	W​	4.32 – 4.55	Y​	3.1
Yb​	2.60[15]	Zn​	3.63 – 4.9	Zr​	4.05

Lattice constant - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

List of lattice constants​

Lattice constants for various materials at 300 K

Material	Lattice constant (Å)	Crystal structure	Ref.
C (diamond)	3.567	Diamond (FCC)	[7]
C (graphite)	a = 2.461 c = 6.708	Hexagonal
Si	5.431020511	Diamond (FCC)	[8][9]
Ge	5.658	Diamond (FCC)	[8]
AlAs	5.6605	Zinc blende (FCC)	[8]
AlP	5.4510	Zinc blende (FCC)	[8]
AlSb	6.1355	Zinc blende (FCC)	[8]
GaP	5.4505	Zinc blende (FCC)	[8]
GaAs	5.653	Zinc blende (FCC)	[8]
GaSb	6.0959	Zinc blende (FCC)	[8]
InP	5.869	Zinc blende (FCC)	[8]
InAs	6.0583	Zinc blende (FCC)	[8]
InSb	6.479	Zinc blende (FCC)	[8]
MgO	4.212	Halite (FCC)	[10]
SiC	a = 3.086 c = 10.053	Wurtzite	[8]
CdS	5.8320	Zinc blende (FCC)	[7]
CdSe	6.050	Zinc blende (FCC)	[7]
CdTe	6.482	Zinc blende (FCC)	[7]
ZnO	a = 3.25 c = 5.2	Wurtzite (HCP)	[11]
ZnO	4.580	Halite (FCC)	[7]
ZnS	5.420	Zinc blende (FCC)	[7]
PbS	5.9362	Halite (FCC)	[7]
PbTe	6.4620	Halite (FCC)	[7]
BN	3.6150	Zinc blende (FCC)	[7]
BP	4.5380	Zinc blende (FCC)	[7]
CdS	a = 4.160 c = 6.756	Wurtzite	[7]
ZnS	a = 3.82 c = 6.26	Wurtzite	[7]
AlN	a = 3.112 c = 4.982	Wurtzite	[8]
GaN	a = 3.189 c = 5.185	Wurtzite	[8]
InN	a = 3.533 c = 5.693	Wurtzite	[8]
LiF	4.03	Halite
LiCl	5.14	Halite
LiBr	5.50	Halite
LiI	6.01	Halite
NaF	4.63	Halite
NaCl	5.64	Halite
NaBr	5.97	Halite
NaI	6.47	Halite
KF	5.34	Halite
KCl	6.29	Halite
KBr	6.60	Halite
KI	7.07	Halite
RbF	5.65	Halite
RbCl	6.59	Halite
RbBr	6.89	Halite
RbI	7.35	Halite
CsF	6.02	Halite
CsCl	4.123	Caesium chloride
CsBr	4.291	Caesium chloride
CsI	4.567	Caesium chloride
Al	4.046	FCC	[12]
Fe	2.856	BCC	[12]
Ni	3.499	FCC	[12]
Cu	3.597	FCC	[12]
Mo	3.142	BCC	[12]
Pd	3.859	FCC	[12]
Ag	4.079	FCC	[12]
W	3.155	BCC	[12]
Pt	3.912	FCC	[12]
Au	4.065	FCC	[12]
Pb	4.920	FCC	[12]
V	3.0399	BCC
Nb	3.3008	BCC
Ta	3.3058	BCC
TiN	4.249	Halite
ZrN	4.577	Halite
HfN	4.392	Halite
VN	4.136	Halite
CrN	4.149	Halite
NbN	4.392	Halite
TiC	4.328	Halite	[13]
ZrC0.97	4.698	Halite	[13]
HfC0.99	4.640	Halite	[13]
VC0.97	4.166	Halite	[13]
NbC0.99	4.470	Halite	[13]
TaC0.99	4.456	Halite	[13]
Cr3C2	a = 11.47 b = 5.545 c = 2.830	Orthorhombic	[13]
WC	a = 2.906 c = 2.837	Hexagonal	[13]
ScN	4.52	Halite	[14]
LiNbO3	a = 5.1483 c = 13.8631	Hexagonal	[15]
KTaO3	3.9885	Cubic perovskite	[15]
BaTiO3	a = 3.994 c = 4.034	Tetragonal perovskite	[15]
SrTiO3	3.98805	Cubic perovskite	[15]
CaTiO3	a = 5.381 b = 5.443 c = 7.645	Orthorhombic perovskite	[15]
PbTiO3	a = 3.904 c = 4.152	Tetragonal perovskite	[15]
EuTiO3	7.810	Cubic perovskite	[15]
SrVO3	3.838	Cubic perovskite	[15]
CaVO3	3.767	Cubic perovskite	[15]
BaMnO3	a = 5.673 c = 4.71	Hexagonal	[15]
CaMnO3	a = 5.27 b = 5.275 c = 7.464	Orthorhombic perovskite	[15]
SrRuO3	a = 5.53 b = 5.57 c = 7.85	Orthorhombic perovskite	[15]
YAlO3	a = 5.179 b = 5.329 c = 7.37	Orthorhombic perovskite	[15]

The stability of the nonequilibrium thermodynamic state of biological systems is ensured by the continuous alternation of phases of energy consumption and release through controlled reactions of synthesis and cleavage of ATP.

The following consequences follow from this law:

1. In living organisms, no process can occur continuously, but must alternate with the opposite direction: inhalation with exhalation, work with rest, wakefulness with sleep, synthesis with cleavage, etc.

2. The state of a living organism is never static, and all its physiological and energy parameters are always in a state of continuous fluctuations relative to the average values both in frequency and amplitude.

This principle of functioning of living organisms provides them with the properties of phenotypic adaptation and a number of others.

Biological thermodynamics - Wikipedia

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The main provisions of the theory of thermodynamics of biological systems​

A living organism is a thermodynamic system of an active type (in which energy transformations occur), striving for a stable nonequilibrium thermodynamic state. The nonequilibrium thermodynamic state in plants is achieved by continuous alternation of phases of solar energy consumption as a result of photosynthesis and subsequent biochemical reactions, as a result of which adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is synthesized in the daytime, and the subsequent release of energy during the splitting of ATP mainly in the dark. Thus, one of the conditions for the existence of life on Earth is the alternation of light and dark time of day.

Light
Dark



Adenosine-5'-triphosphate

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleoside triphosphate[2] that provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, and chemical synthesis. Found in all known forms of life, it is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency" for intracellular energy transfer.[3]

? The answer is ?

Adenosine triphosphate - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Phosphate - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Phosphate mineral - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Plants take up phosphorus through several pathways: the arbuscular mycorrhizal pathway and the direct uptake pathway.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Arbuscular mycorrhiza is a type of endomycorrhiza along with ericoid mycorrhiza and orchid mycorrhiza (not to be confused with ectomycorrhiza). They are characterized by the formation of unique tree-like structures, the arbuscules.[1]

 

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the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed; matter and energy may also be converted to one another.

Fractal Foundation Online Course - Chapter 1 - FRACTALS IN NATURE

fractalfoundation.org

 

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Plants harvest electrons through a process called photosynthesis, where sunlight energy is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules within chloroplasts, causing electrons to become excited and "jump" to a higher energy level, effectively "harvesting" them from water molecules which are then split to provide a source of electrons for the plant's electron transport chain; this process releases oxygen as a byproduct.



Key points about plant electron harvesting:

• Chlorophyll:
  The primary pigment responsible for capturing light energy, when excited by a photon of light, it donates an electron.
  
  
  
  
• Photosystems:
  Specialized protein complexes within chloroplasts where the light energy is captured and electrons are transferred.
  
  
  
  
• Water splitting:
  In plants, the electrons harvested come from the splitting of water molecules, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.
  
  
  
  
• Electron transport chain:
  Once excited, the electrons are passed through a series of electron carriers within the chloroplast membrane, generating a proton gradient which is used to produce ATP.
  
  

 

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Glomalin - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

“A plant absorbs water with nutrients from the roots, but it can't consume those immediately. That's why these nutrients travel to the leaves. That’s where the plant converts them into a usable form (like sugars and amino acids) with sunlight. These then travel back to the roots and through the rest of the plant to feed them,” summarized Frank.

Chemiosmosis - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Plant hormones
Abscisic acid Auxins Brassinosteroids Cytokinins Ethylene Gibberellins

 

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Food web control​

Bottom-up effects​

Bottom-up effects occur when the density of a resource affects the density of its consumer.[11] For example, in the figure above, an increase in root density causes an increase in herbivore density that causes a corresponding increase in predator density. Correlations in abundance or biomass between consumers and their resources give evidence for bottom-up control.[11] An often-cited example of a bottom-up effect is the relationship between herbivores and the primary productivity of plants. In terrestrial ecosystems, the biomass of herbivores and detritivores increases with primary productivity. An increase in primary productivity will result in a larger influx of leaf litter into the soil ecosystem, which will provide more resources for bacterial and fungal populations to grow. More microbes will allow an increase in bacterial and fungal feeding nematodes, which are eaten by mites and other predatory nematodes. Thus, the entire food web swells as more resources are added to the base.[11] When ecologists use the term, bottom-up control, they are indicating that the biomass, abundance, or diversity of higher trophic levels depend on resources from lower trophic levels.[10]

Top-down effects​

Ideas about top-down control are much more difficult to evaluate. Top-down effects occur when the population density of a consumer affects that of its resource;[10] for example, a predator affects the density of its prey. Top-down control, therefore, refers to situations where the abundance, diversity or biomass of lower trophic levels depends on effects from consumers at higher trophic levels.[10] A trophic cascade is a type of top-down interaction that describes the indirect effects of predators. In a trophic cascade, predators induce effects that cascade down food chain and affect biomass of organisms at least two links away.[10]

The importance of trophic cascades and top-down control in terrestrial ecosystems is actively debated in ecology (reviewed in Shurin et al. 2006) and the issue of whether trophic cascades occur in soils is no less complex[12] Trophic cascades do occur in both the bacterial and fungal energy channels.[13][14][15] However, cascades may be infrequent, because many other studies show no top-down effects of predators.[16][17] In Mikola and Setälä’s study, microbes eaten by nematodes grew faster when they were grazed upon frequently. This compensatory growth slowed when the microbe feeding nematodes were removed. Therefore, although top predators reduced the number of microbe feeding nematodes, there was no overall change in microbial biomass.

Besides the grazing effect, another barrier to top down control in soil ecosystems is widespread omnivory, which by increasing the number of trophic interactions, dampens effects from the top. The soil environment is also a matrix of different temperatures, moistures and nutrient levels, and many organisms are able to become dormant to withstand difficult times. Depending on conditions, predators may be separated from their potential prey by an insurmountable amount of space and time.

Any top-down effects that do occur will be limited in strength because soil food webs are donor controlled. Donor control means that consumers have little or no effect on the renewal or input of their resources.[10] For example, aboveground herbivores can overgraze an area and decrease the grass population, but decomposers cannot directly influence the rate of falling plant litter. They can only indirectly influence the rate of input into their system through nutrient recycling which, by helping plants to grow, eventually creates more litter and detritus to fall.[18] If the entire soil food web were completely donor controlled, however, bacterivores and fungivores would never greatly affect the bacteria and fungi they consume.

While bottom-up effects are no doubt important, many soil ecologists suspect that top-down effects are also sometimes significant. Certain predators or parasites, when added to the soil, can have a large effect on root herbivores and thereby indirectly affect plant fitness. For example, in a coastal shrubland food chain the native entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis marelatus, parasitized ghost moth caterpillars, and ghost moth caterpillars consumed the roots of bush lupine. The presence of H. marelatus correlated with lower caterpillar numbers and healthier plants. In addition, the researchers observed high mortality of bush lupine in the absence of entomopathogenic nematodes. These results implied that the nematode, as a natural enemy of the ghost moth caterpillar, protected the plant from damage. The authors even suggested that the interaction was strong enough to affect the population dynamics of bush lupine;[19] this was supported in later experimental work with naturally-growing populations of bush lupine.[20]

Top down control has applications in agriculture and is the principle behind biological control, the idea that plants can benefit from the application of their herbivore’s enemies. While wasps and ladybugs are commonly associated with biological control, parasitic nematodes and predatory mites are also added to the soil to suppress pest populations and preserve crop plants. In order to use such biological control agents effectively, a knowledge of the local soil food web is important.

Soil food web - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

 

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This table includes some familiar types of soil life of soil life,[8] coherent with prevalent taxonomy as used in the linked Wikipedia articles.

Domain	Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family	Genus
Prokaryote	Bacteria	Pseudomonadota	Betaproteobacteria	Nitrosomonadales	Nitrosomonadaceae	Nitrosomonas
Prokaryote	Bacteria	Pseudomonadota	Alphaproteobacteria	Hyphomicrobiales	Nitrobacteraceae	Nitrobacter
Prokaryote	Bacteria	Pseudomonadota	Alphaproteobacteria	Hyphomicrobiales	Rhizobiaceae	Rhizobium[a]
Prokaryote	Bacteria	Pseudomonadota	Gammaproteobacteria	Pseudomonadales	Azotobacteraceae	Azotobacter
Prokaryote	Bacteria	Actinomycetota	Actinomycetia
Prokaryote	Bacteria	"Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae)
Prokaryote	Bacteria	Bacillota	Clostridia	Clostridiales	Clostridiaceae	Clostridium
Eukaryote	Fungi	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Eurotiales	Trichocomaceae	Penicillium
Eukaryote	Fungi	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Eurotiales	Trichocomaceae	Aspergillus
Eukaryote	Fungi	Ascomycota	Sordariomycetes	Hypocreales	Nectriaceae	Fusarium
Eukaryote	Fungi	Ascomycota	Sordariomycetes	Hypocreales	Hypocreaceae	Trichoderma
Eukaryote	Fungi	Basidiomycota	Agaricomycetes	Cantharellales	Ceratobasidiaceae	Rhizoctonia
Eukaryote	Fungi	Zygomycota	Zygomycetes	Mucorales	Mucoraceae	Mucor
Eukaryote	SAR (clade)	Heterokontophyta	Bacillariophyceae (Diatomea algae)
Eukaryote	SAR (clade)	Heterokontophyta	Xanthophyceae (Yellow-green algae)
Eukaryote	Alveolata (clade)	Ciliophora
Eukaryote	Amoebozoa (clade)
Eukaryote	Plantae	Chlorophyta (green algae)	Chlorophyceae
Eukaryote	Animalia	Nematoda
Eukaryote	Animalia	Rotifer
Eukaryote	Animalia	Tardigrada
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Entognatha	Collembola
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Arachnida	Acarina
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Arachnida	Pseudoscorpionida
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Insecta	Choleoptera (larvae)
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Insecta	Coleoptera	Carabidae (Ground beetles)
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Insecta	Coleoptera	Staphylinidae (Rove beetle)
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Insecta	Diptera (larvae)
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Insecta	Hymenoptera	Formicidae (Ant)
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Chilopoda (Centipede)
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Diplopoda (Millipede)
Eukaryote	Animalia	Arthropoda	Malacostraca	Isopoda (woodlouse)
Eukaryote	Animalia	Annelida	Clitellata	Haplotaxida	Enchytraeidae
Eukaryote	Animalia	Annelida	Clitellata	Haplotaxida	Lumbricidae
Eukaryote	Animalia	Mollusca	Gastropoda

Nitrobacter is a genus comprising rod-shaped, gram-negative, and chemoautotrophic bacteria.[1] The name Nitrobacter derives from the Latin neuter gender noun nitrum, nitri, alkalis; the Ancient Greek noun βακτηρία, βακτηρίᾱς, rod. They are non-motile and reproduce via budding or binary fission.[2][3] Nitrobacter cells are obligate aerobes and have a doubling time of about 13 hours.[1]

Nitrobacter play an important role in the nitrogen cycle by oxidizing nitrite into nitrate in soil and marine systems.[2] Unlike plants, where electron transfer in photosynthesis provides the energy for carbon fixation, Nitrobacter uses energy from the oxidation of nitrite ions, NO2−, into nitrate ions, NO3−, to fulfill their energy needs. Nitrobacter fix carbon dioxide via the Calvin cycle for their carbon requirements.[1] Nitrobacter belongs to the Alphaproteobacteria class of the Pseudomonadota.[3][4]

 

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The soil biomantle can be described and defined in several ways. Most simply, the soil biomantle is the organic-rich bioturbated upper part of the soil, including the topsoil where most biota live, reproduce, die, and become assimilated. The biomantle is thus the upper zone of soil that is predominantly a product of organic activity and the area where bioturbation is a dominant process.

Soil bioturbation consists predominantly of three subsets: faunalturbation (animal burrowings), floralturbation (root growth, tree-uprootings), and fungiturbation (mycelia growth). All three processes promote soil parent material destratification, mixing, and often particle size sorting, leading with other processes to the formation of soil and its horizons. While the general term bioturbation refers mainly to these three mixing processes, unless otherwise specified it is commonly used as a synonym to faunalturbation (animal burrowings).[1][2][3][4]

Soil biomantle - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Beginning with Darwin, the earthworm has been recognized as a key bioturbator of soil biomantles and human artifacts on many continents and islands.[27][28][29][30][31][32]

 

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A represents soil; B represents laterite, a regolith;
C represents saprolite, a less-weathered regolith; beneath C is bedrock.

Saprolite is a chemically weathered rock.

Saprolite - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Weathering is the deterioration of rocks, soils and minerals (as well as wood and artificial materials) through contact with water, atmospheric gases, sunlight, and biological organisms.

Weathering - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

 

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Oxidation​

A pyrite cube has dissolved away from host rock, leaving gold particles behind
.
Oxidized pyrite cubes
Within the weathering environment, chemical oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron) by oxygen and water to form Fe3+ oxides and hydroxides such as goethite, limonite, and hematite. This gives the affected rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock. Many other metallic ores and minerals oxidize and hydrate to produce colored deposits, as does sulfur during the weathering of sulfide minerals such as chalcopyrites or CuFeS2 oxidizing to copper hydroxide and iron oxides.[36]

Hydration​

Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of water molecules or H+ and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. No significant dissolution takes place. For example, iron oxides are converted to iron hydroxides and the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum.[37]

Bulk hydration of minerals is secondary in importance to dissolution, hydrolysis, and oxidation,[36] but hydration of the crystal surface is the crucial first step in hydrolysis. A fresh surface of a mineral crystal exposes ions whose electrical charge attracts water molecules. Some of these molecules break into H+ that bonds to exposed anions (usually oxygen) and OH- that bonds to exposed cations. This further disrupts the surface, making it susceptible to various hydrolysis reactions. Additional protons replace cations exposed on the surface, freeing the cations as solutes. As cations are removed, silicon-oxygen and silicon-aluminium bonds become more susceptible to hydrolysis, freeing silicic acid and aluminium hydroxides to be leached away or to form clay minerals.[32][38] Laboratory experiments show that weathering of feldspar crystals begins at dislocations or other defects on the surface of the crystal, and that the weathering layer is only a few atoms thick. Diffusion within the mineral grain does not appear to be significant.[39]


A freshly broken rock shows differential chemical weathering (probably mostly oxidation) progressing inward. This piece of sandstone was found in glacial drift near Angelica, New York.

Biological​

Mineral weathering can also be initiated or accelerated by soil microorganisms. Soil organisms make up about 10 mg/cm3 of typical soils, and laboratory experiments have demonstrated that albite and muscovite weather twice as fast in live versus sterile soil. Lichens on rocks are among the most effective biological agents of chemical weathering.[33] For example, an experimental study on hornblende granite in New Jersey, US, demonstrated a 3x – 4x increase in weathering rate under lichen covered surfaces compared to recently exposed bare rock surfaces.[40]


Biological weathering of basalt by lichen, La Palma
The most common forms of biological weathering result from the release of chelating compounds (such as certain organic acids and siderophores) and of carbon dioxide and organic acids by plants. Roots can build up the carbon dioxide level to 30% of all soil gases, aided by adsorption of CO2 on clay minerals and the very slow diffusion rate of CO2 out of the soil.[41] The CO2 and organic acids help break down aluminium- and iron-containing compounds in the soils beneath them. Roots have a negative electrical charge balanced by protons in the soil next to the roots, and these can be exchanged for essential nutrient cations such as potassium.[42] Decaying remains of dead plants in soil may form organic acids which, when dissolved in water, cause chemical weathering.[43] Chelating compounds, mostly low molecular weight organic acids, are capable of removing metal ions from bare rock surfaces, with aluminium and silicon being particularly susceptible.[44] The ability to break down bare rock allows lichens to be among the first colonizers of dry land.[45] The accumulation of chelating compounds can easily affect surrounding rocks and soils, and may lead to podsolisation of soils.[46][47]

The symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi associated with tree root systems can release inorganic nutrients from minerals such as apatite or biotite and transfer these nutrients to the trees, thus contributing to tree nutrition.[48] It was also recently evidenced that bacterial communities can impact mineral stability leading to the release of inorganic nutrients.[49] A large range of bacterial strains or communities from diverse genera have been reported to be able to colonize mineral surfaces or to weather minerals, and for some of them a plant growth promoting effect has been demonstrated.[50] The demonstrated or hypothesised mechanisms used by bacteria to weather minerals include several oxidoreduction and dissolution reactions as well as the production of weathering agents, such as protons, organic acids and chelating molecules.