This is an attempt to make the posted articles easier to find and use. I am still interested in additional posts anyone that thinks they can help by posting really great reference articles, here are a list of the subjects I use.
I am sure I, and you, will find additional subjects, please suggest any subjects that should be added, try and include a DOI number or if no DOI a http:// link to download any paper, I will then post in the right subject posted in alphabetical order .
With a DOI number you can get any science paper by going to https://sci-hub.se/ and pasting in the DOI number.
If the link above does not work type sci-hub into google and use the https://sci-hub.se/ link that pops up, it works, then paste in the DOI. A few papers do not have a working DOI, I tried to find a http:// link for those papers. Recently some journals block the DOI of newly published papers for the first year or two, in that case I try to find a http:// that has the Pdf, if not I will publish what info I have and post FIND Pdf on the bottom of the abstract. If anyone sees a DOI or http:// that does not yield a Pdf please let me know and send me a link to the actual Pdf so I can post it for all.
I also welcome discussion of any paper posted, good or bad, share what you think so others can expand their understanding of Cannabis.
I will post a * before the title of the top 5-10 papers in each subject, these are must reads if you have interest in that Cannabis subject.
I will try and add all of the abstracts to all of the articles I can.
If anyone finds a http link or Doi number that does not work, please tell me so I can attempt to fix it.
If anyone has suggestions for additional subjects for any specific paper to be posted in, please tell me, I will add the paper to both subjects.
The only real disadvantage of this way of displaying the Biblography is if people want to see just the latest additions to this Biblography, so maybe I should first list new additions to the
CANNABIS BIBLIOGRAPHY SORTED AND ALPHABETIZED BY SUBJECT with their titles in red for a few months then make it black like the rest? I will do that.
I hate posting abstracts of papers without a free Pdf or DOI link to download the paper, but I do anyway just in case folks see a paper they are want now and are willing to pay for a new paper I do not have a free link for yet. If you know a link for the missing Pdf PM me so I can add it.
IC Archaeology/History....................... ................PAGE 1, POST #1
IC Breeding Cannabis...................... .....................PAGE 1, POST #3
IC Cannabinoids.................. .............................. ..PAGE 1, POST #8
IC Cannabinoid Receptors...,,,,.............. ..............PAGE 1, POST #9
IC Cannabis Analysis...................... ........................PAGE 1, POST #11
IC Cannabis Art........................... ..........................PAGE 1, POST #12
IC Cannabis Botany........................ .......................PAGE 1, POST #12
IC Cannabis Collectables.................. ......................PAGE 1, POST #12
IC Cannabis Plant Growth Hormones...................... .PAGE 1, POST #12
IC Cannabis R&D......................... .. ........................ PAGE 1, POST #12
IC Cannabis Seeds......................... .........................PAGE 1, POST #13
IC Cannabis Seed Oil........................... ....................PAGE 1, POST #13
IC Classification/Taxonomy...................... ................PAGE 1, POST #13
IC DNA.............................. .............................. .......PAGE 1, POST #14
IC Drug Cannabis...................... .............................. .PAGE 1, POST #16
IC Ethnobotany................... .............................. .......PAGE 1, POST #16
IC Flavonoids.................... .............................. .....PAGE 1, POST #16
IC Hemp/Cannabis Cultivation................... ............PAGE 1, POST #17
IC Hemp Processing.............................. ................PAGE 1, POST #18
IC Interviews Cannabis People........................ ......PAGE 1, POST #19
IC In Vitro......................... .............................. ......PAGE 1, POST #19
IC Legal......................... .............................. ...........PAGE 1, POST #19
IC Medical Cannabis/Endocannabinoids Part 1 A-D......PAGE 1, POST #20
IC Medical Cannabis/Endocannabinoids Part 2 E-Z......PAGE 1, POST #21
IC Pest and Disease....................... .......................PAGE 2, POST 22
IC Terpenes .............................. ..........................PAGE 2, POST 24
IC Trichomes .............................. .........................PAGE 2, POST 26
I have posted maybe 2000+ articles, almost organized into 27 categories, all on 2 pages of this post Pg1 & Pg 2
IC Archaeology/History
*A fragrant grave - revealing the mummified remains of a 17th-century bishop
Per Lagerås, National Historical Museums, Sweden
Current World Archaeology · March 2016 Issue 76
https://www.world-archaeology.com/fe...entury-bishop/
Bishop Peder Winstrup died in December 1679, aged 74, and was buried beneath Lund Cathedral. When, in 2014, it was decided that his coffin should be removed from the crypt, a team of archaeologists took the opportunity to look inside. What they discovered surprised everyone: his clothes, his skin, and his hair were so perfectly preserved that he looked almost as if he were sleeping rather than having been dead for more than three centuries. But another shock awaited the team: the bishop was not alone. Secreted at his feet was the tiny body of a human foetus, probably a still-born baby. Winstrup and the baby lay on a bed of well-preserved plants, its pillows stuffed with herbs. Could these be the reason the remains looked so fresh? An interdisciplinary research team, directed by Per Karsten, Historical Museum at Lund University, was rapidly assembled to investigate.
"ICE MAIDEN"
A mummy unearthed from the pastures of heaven
January 1994 National geographic 186(4):80-103
N. Polosmak
https://nationalgeographicbackissues.. .ober-1994.html
https://siberiantimes.com/science/ca...ique-mri-scan/
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transc...7siberian.html
American Weed: A History of Cannabis Cultivation in the United States
Nick Johnson
Introduction: Marijuana Menaces the Midway
EchoGéo 48(48) July 2019
DOI: 10.4000/echogeo.17650
//www.researchgate.net/publication/334452841_American_Weed_A_Hist ory_of_Cannabis_Cultivation_in _the_United_States
In the summer of 1929, Reefer Madness descended upon the Windy City. In late April, the Illinois house of representatives had passed a bill to ban “loco-weed,” a plant whose “Mexican form” was “marijuana,” a “narcotic” (Brown, 1929a)1 Two months later, as the bill languished in the senate, the Chicago Tribune ran an article and accompanying backpage photo on marijuana, attempting to spur the legislature into action. The paper claimed that the “dangerous, habit forming drug” had been “introduced a dozen years ago or so by Mexican laborers” and was now spreading across the city, ensnaring “thousands of workingmen,” “youths and girls,” as well as “school children.” (Chicago Tribune, 1929a). In the photo, two dark-skinned men with sun hats are crouched next to some cannabis plants “in the southern part of the city,” “gathering marijuana” while the “legislature delays action” (Chicago Tribune, 1929b; Falck, 2010, p. 80-81). The newspaper clearly intended the photo to be visual proof of marijuana’s “Mexican” origins, as well as a swipe at the legislature for stalling while devious foreigners harvested a dangerous drug. The accompanying article claimed that cannabis “seeds” were “brought by Mexicans” and “planted in tiny patches near the box car homes of the laborers.” But if Mexicans were blamed for the drug’s introduction, the rest of the article made clear that they could hardly be held responsible for its spread. In addition to naming two “alleged sellers of marijuana cigarets” as “Harry Johnson” and “Richard Drake,” the report also claimed that marijuana smoking was widespread “in South Chicago, in Blue Island, in Kensington, and other outlying districts, and it can be purchased in restaurants, drug stores, and poolrooms” – all of which were not exclusively the domain of Mexicans (Chicago Tribune, 1929a). Nature, too, helped the “loco weed”
An Archaeological and Historical Account of Cannabis in China
Hui-Lin Li
October 1973 Economic Botany 28(4):437-448
DOI: 10.1007/BF02862859
From a historical vantage, Cannabis has been found in China since Neolithic times, about 6,000 years ago, with a continuous record of cultivation down to the present. This record stands unique in comparison to those of other regions in Asia, and it strongly indicates the plant to be indigenous. New archeological finds in recent years considerably substantiate and extend its early history. The very scattered references in historical literature are in need of organization and analysis. These records are assembled here, followed by some notes on the possible routes of early diffusion of the plant in relation to its usage.
Ancient Cannabis Burial Shroud in a Central Eurasian Cemetery
HONGEN JIANG, LONG WANG, MARK D. MERLIN, ROBERT C. CLARKE,
YAN PAN, YONG ZHANG, GUOQIANG XIAO, AND XIAOLIAN DING
Economic Botany, Vol 70(X), 2016, 9 pp.
DOI: 10.1007/s12231-016-9351-1
An extraordinary cache of ancient, well-preserved Cannabis plant remains was recently discovered in a tomb in the Jiayi cemetery of Turpan, NW China. Radiometric dating of this tomb and the archeobotanical remains it contained indicate that they are approximately 2800–2400 years old. Both morphological and anatomical features support the identification of the plant remains as Cannabis. Research discussed in this paper describes 13 nearly whole plants of Cannabis that appear to have been locally produced and purposefully arranged and used as a burial shroud which was placed upon a male corpse. This unique discovery provides new insight into the ritualistic use of Cannabis in prehistoric Central Eurasia. Furthermore, the fragmented infructescences of Cannabis discovered in other tombs of the Jiayi cemetery, together with similar Cannabis remains recovered from coeval tombs in the ancient Turpan cemetery along with those found in the Altai Mountains region, reveal that Cannabis was used by the local Central Eurasian people for ritual and/or medicinal purposes in the first millennium before the Christian era.
Ancient usage of cannabis
Aaron Clauset, Kollen Post
Science 364(6445):1043.8-1044 June 2019
DOI: 10.1126/science.364.6445.1043-h
The cultivation of cannabis extends back into distant prehistory. During excavations at a cemetery on the Pamir Plateau on the border of China and Tajikistan, Ren et al. found cannabinoid oils in wooden braziers. The finding is consistent with psychoactive cannabis use in burial rituals as early as 500 BCE. The cannabis featured high levels of THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)—higher than in wild varieties of the plant. Artifacts recovered from the burials as well as isotopic evidence from human remains suggest a high degree of cultural and economic exchange with neighboring peoples. Thus, people in the region may have been engaged in the hybridization of disparate populations of cannabis plants for the purpose of increasing their potency.
*A new insight into Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai Tombs, Xinjiang, China
Hong-En Jiang, Xiao Li, You-Xing Zhao, David K.Ferguson, Francis Hueber, Subir Bera, Yu-Fei Wang, Liang-Cheng Zhao, Chang-Jiang Liu, Cheng-Sen Li
Journal of Ethnopharmacology Volume 108, Issue 3, 6 December 2006, Pages 414-422
doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034
A cache of shoots, leaves and fruits dated by 14C at 2500 years B.P. were unearthed in the Yanghai Tombs, Turpan District in Xinjiang, China. By comparing the morphological and anatomical characteristics of the plant remains found in the tomb and specimens of modern plants, it is shown that the remains belong toCannabis. Based on the shamanistic background of the deceased man and ancient customs, it is assumed that the Cannabis was utilized for ritual/medicinal purposes.
A PHYSIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE PRINCIPLE FROM CANNABIS SATIVA (MARIHUANA)
HAAGEN-SMIT, A. J., WAWRA, C. Z., KOEPFLI, J. B., ALLES, G. A., FEIGEN, G. A., & PRATER, A. N.
Science, 91(2373), 602–603. (1940).
doi:10.1126/science.91.2373.602
While it has long been known that the physiological activity of Cannabis sativa (marihuana or hashish) is associated with its contained resins, no physiologically active crystalline material has heretofore been isolated.
We report in this note the isolation of such a substance. The hydrocarbon nonacosane and an oily product termed canabinol were first isolated by Wood, Spivey and Easterfie1d In 1938 Bergel, Todd and Work reported the preparation of a crystallilie p-nitro benzoate of cannabinol which could be used to separate the cannabinol from the oil by chromatographic adsorption methods. Recently an oily product which was named cannabidiol was isolated by Adams, Hunt and Clark. None of these well-defined products has exhibited the characteristic physiological activities that are shown by the crude drug though canabinol was found to be quite toxic. Reviews of the earlier work on the chemistry of Cannabis have been published by Walton and by Blatt.
Work on the separation of physiologically active fractions from alcoholic extracts of Cannabis sativa has been in progress for the past year in our laboratories. The extracts of Minnesota wild hemp used for the work were generously supplied by the Narcotics Laboratory, United States Treasury Department, and we are indebted to Nessrs. H. J. Anslinger and H. J. Wollner for their collaboration which made this work possible. The alcohol extract of the crude drug was diluted with water to yield a seventy per cent, alcohol solution, and this vas partitioned into petroleum ether. Salt forming compounds were extracted and then colored substances were largely removed by adsorption on zinc carbonate. The resultant resinous material was fractionally precipitated from methanol with water and there was obtained a physiologically active fraction of about one twentieth the weight of the crude resin material. This purified product 1~as fractionally distilled under 0.005 mm pressure, with the most active fraction distilling at 128O-135O C. This fraction is a red-colored oil which shows typical activity in dogs following an oral dose of 1.0 mg per kg. By cooling a solution of this oil in a methanol-acetic acid mixture, some crystalline material was obtained. This was then recrystallized several times from methanol to yield colorless needles melting at 128O-129O C.
Archaeological Evidence for the Tradition of Psychoactive Plant Use in the Old World.
Merlin, M. D.
Economic Botany, 57(3), 295–323. (2003).
doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0295:aeftto]2.0.co;2
We live in an age when a divine vision is dismissed as an hallucination, and desire to experience a direct communication with god is often interpreted as a sign of mental illness. Nevertheless, some scholars and scientists assert that such visions and communications are fundamentally derived from an ancient and ongoing cultural tradition. The hypothesis presented here suggests that humans have a very ancient tradition involving the use of mind-altering experiences to produce profound, more or less spiritual and cultural understanding. Much evidence for the early use of Cannabis for fiber, food, medicine, ceremony and recreation can be gleaned from ancient written records (Fig. 12, 13, 14, and 15). However, the archae ological record for early use of Cannabis is much less extensive. Nevertheless, the macrofossil, pollen, and indirect material evidence from prehistory are substantial.
Archaeobotanical evidence of the use of medicinal cannabis in a secular context unearthed from south China
Yunjun Bai , Ming Jiang , Tao Xie , Chao Jiang , Man Gu , Xinying Zhou , Xue Yan , Yuan Yuan , Luqi Huang
J Ethnopharmacol. 2021 Jul 15;275:114114.
doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114114
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...om_South_China
Ethnopharmacological relevance: As one of the first plants used by ancient people, cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of years. The long history of medicinal cannabis use contrasts with the paucity of archaeobotanical records. Moreover, physical evidence of medicinal cannabis use in a secular context is much rarer than evidence of medicinal cannabis use in religious or ritual activities, which impedes our understanding of the history of medicinal cannabis use.
Aim of the study: This study aims to provide archaeobotanical evidence of medicinal cannabis use and analyse the specific medicinal usage of cannabis in a secular context in ancient times.
Materials and methods: Plant remains were collected from the Laoguanshan Cemetery of the Han Dynasty in Chengdu, South China, with the archaeological flotation process and were identified based on morphological and anatomical characteristics. The examination of the medicinal significance of the remains relied on the investigation of the documentation on unearthed medical bamboo slips, the diseases of the tomb occupants, the cemetery's cultural background and Chinese historical records.
Results: The botanical remains were accurately identified as cannabis. More than 120 thousand fruits were found, which represents the largest amount of cannabis fruit remains that have been statistically analysed from any cemetery in the world thus far. The cannabis fruits are suspected to have been used for medical purposes in a secular context and were most likely used to stop severe bleeding of the uterus and treat lumbago and/or arthralgia.
Conclusions: The cannabis fruit remains reported here likely represent the first physical evidence of medicinal cannabis use for the treatment of metrorrhagia, severe lumbago, and/or arthralgia. This study emphasizes the importance of the evidence of the diseases suffered by the occupants of the tomb in determining the medicinal use of cannabis in a secular context and contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the ancient history of medicinal cannabis.
Breaking the begging bowl: morals, drugs, and madness in the fate of the Muslim faqīr.
Green, N.
South Asian History and Culture, 5(2), 226–245.(2014).
doi:10.1080/19472498.2014.883761
This article follows a set of developments that transformed the meaning and value of begging as a religious pursuit in colonial India. Focusing on the Muslim faqīrs, the article argues that missionaries, colonial officials, and physicians joined together in a moral and then medical critique of the faqīrs as venerated idlers and sanctified drug users. The moral dimensions of the critique were then taken up by Muslim and Hindu reformists. Positioned at the centre of an immoral nexus, for their British critics the faqīrs were key to the spread of drug abuse and in turn insanity among their followers. For Indian reformists and then nationalists, this nexus also connected the faqīrs to the moral, economic, and physical weakening of the nation. In both of these critical visions, the begging mendicant was seen as an actively harmful figure whose misdeeds ranged from promoting the inversed morality of an anti-work ethic to peddling the evils of drug addiction and rousing the riotous masses on holy days. By drawing on a range of missionary, medical and Muslim reformist texts, the article shows how from around 1870 the discourses of Islamic reform and Indian nationalism gradually joined forces with the medical and moral discipline of empire such that by the 1920s the faqīrs had gained an assembly of powerful enemies. In this way, the colonial period is seen as a crucial period of transition in the meanings of begging and drug use that would leave the venerated mendicants of former times disempowered in post-colonial South Asia.
Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years.
Pertwee, R. G.
British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. (2009).
doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406
Research into the pharmacology of individual cannabinoids that began in the 1940s, several decades after the presence of a cannabinoid was first detected in cannabis, is concisely reviewed. Also described is how this pharmacological research led to the discovery of cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors and of endogenous ligands for these receptors, to the development of CB1- and CB2-selective agonists and antagonists and to the realization that the endogenous cannabinoid systemhas significant roles in both health and disease, and that drugs which mimic, augment or block the actions of endogenously released cannabinoids must have important therapeutic applications. Some goals for future research are identified.
Cannabinoid research in the 2010s
Mauro Maccarrone and Steve PH Alexander
bph_1930 2409..2410
DOI:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.01930.x
Cannabis sativa is possibly the plant with the longest history of cultivation by man (Russo, 2007). It has long been exploited for its fibre; as a biomass converter, it has exceptional utility. For most people, however, there is the association of cannabis with ‘recreational drugs’, which has lead to the profusion of names associated with the plant and extracts thereof (marijuana,hashish, bhang, weed, grass, etc.). The ‘modern’ scientific era of cannabis research was prompted by the discovery of the major psychoactive ingredient in cannabis extracts (Gaoni and Mechoulam, 1964). This was, of course, D9-tetrahydrocannabinol or THC. Raphael Mechoulam has numerous publications, filled with seminal observations, including the identification of the two ‘best’ candidates for endogenous cannabinoid molecules: anandamide (Devane et al., 1992) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (Mechoulam et al., 1995). He has become something of an icon in the cannabis field, with this issue of BJP containing a series of original articles prompted by a symposium held in Jerusalem in November 2010 to celebrate his 80th birthday. The first issue, entitled ‘Cannabinoids in Biology and Medicine’, containing primarily reviews, was published in August 2011 (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/...sue-7/issuetoc). Current research incannabinoid-related areas is vibrant, with the added focus of TRPV1 ion channels, PPAR nuclear receptors and the ‘orphan’ G-protein coupled receptors, GPR18, GPR55 and GPR119, as molecular targets of cannabinoids and cannabinoid-like molecules. Furthermore, the identification of endogenous agonists at cannabinoid receptors which lead to the demonstration of multiple routes for synthesis and transformation of these endocannabinoids has added to the molecular targets available for potential exploitation.
Cannabis
Chris S Duvall
February 2015
Publisher: Botanical Series, Reaktion Books, London
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...65399_Cannabis
Cannabis, one of humanity’s first domesticated plants, has been utilized for spiritual, therapeutic, recreational, and even punitive reasons for thousands of years. Humans have excellent practical knowledge of Cannabis uses, yet limited understanding of its sociocultural consequences, past or present due to its widespread prohibition. In Cannabis, Chris Duvall explores the cultural history and geography of humanity’s most widely distributed crop, which supplies both hemp and marijuana. This book provides a global view of the plant, with coverage of little-studied regions including Africa and Australia. This book focuses on the plant’s currently most valuable product, the psychoactive drug marijuana. Cannabis also covers the history of hemp and its use as a fiber source for ropes and textiles; as a source of edible hempseeds; and as a source of industrial oil for paints and fuel. This book does not advocate either the prohibition or legalisation of the drug but challenges received wisdom on both sides of the debate. Cannabis explores and analyses a wide range of sources to provide a better understanding of its current prohibition, as well as of the diversity of human–Cannabis relationships across the globe. This, the author argues, is necessary to redress the oversimplistic portrayals of marijuana and hemp that dominate discourse on the subject, and ultimately to improve how the crop is managed worldwide. This highly accessible, richly illustrated volume is an essential read given rapidly evolving debates about prohibition, and in light of changes in the legality of marijuana in Uruguay, some U.S. states, and other jurisdictions worldwide
Cannabis and Frankincense at the Judahite shrine of Arad
Eran Ariea , Baruch Rosenb and Dvory Namdarc
TEL AVIV Vol. 47, 2020, 5–28
DOI: 10.1080/03344355.2020.1732046
Two limestone monoliths, interpreted as altars, were found in the Judahite shrine at Tel Arad. Unidentified dark material preserved on their upper surfaces was submitted for organic residue analysis at two unrelated laboratories that used similar established extraction methods. On the smaller altar, residues of cannabinoids such as ?9 -teterahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) were detected, along with an assortment of terpenes and terpenoids, suggesting that cannabis inflorescences had been burnt on it. Organic residues attributed to animal dung were also found, suggesting that the cannabis resin had been mixed with dung to enable mild heating. The larger altar contained an assemblage of indicative triterpenes such as boswellic acid and norursatriene, which derives from frankincense. The additional presence of animal fat?in related compounds such as testosterone, androstene and cholesterol?suggests that resin was mixed with it to facilitate evaporation. These well-preserved residues shed new light on the use of 8th century Arad altars and on incense offerings in Judah during the Iron Age.
Cannabis and hemp in the Ottoman Empire
ERHAN AFYONCU
https://www.dailysabah.com/feature/2...ottoman-empire
Turkey is looking to revive cannabis cultivation in order to begin using it in industry. Though the Ottoman Empire had a huge hemp industry, the plant has not been cultivated in Anatolia for decades
In Turkish, the cannabis plant is also known as "kendir," which is also the name of the fiber made out of it. The fiber and seeds of the cannabis plant are used to make a variety of different products around the world. It is prohibited in many countries because of its miscellaneous use as a drug. However, industrial hemp is used in the production of many things, including fabric, yarn, naval materials, cosmetics, vehicle frames, soap and cellulose. It was commonly grown during the Ottoman era.
Cannabis and Medicinal Research History of Medical Cannabis in Sri Lanka
Weliange W S,
J Neurol Neurophysiol 2018, Volume 9
Conference: Cannabis and Medicinal Research, Japan
DOI: 10.4172/2155-9562-C9-085
Island of Sri Lanka was occupied by Homo sapiens since 40,000 years ago. They separated into Yaksha, Naga and Deva tribes. A Yaksha king called Ravana ruled Sri Lanka around 10,000 BC and established methods of medical practices. In 509 BC a team led by Indian prince Vijaya arrived and started agriculture civilization. In 341 AD King Buddadasa wrote a medical pharmacopeia; Sarartha Sangrahaya in which he medicinal values of Cannabis were described. Since then medical books described Cannabis as an important herbal ingredient. These books include Yogarnavaya and Prayagorathnavaliya (1232), Vaidyacintamani – wish-fulfilling gem of Medicine (1707), Glossary of Synonyms of Medicinal Plants (1798), Yogasekaraya (1894), Kolavidiya (1900), Es Veda Potha (Opthalmic treatments) (1908). Saraswathi Nigantuwa (1918), Sri Sarangadara Samhitha (1929), Chemistry and Pharmacology of Indian and Sri Lankan Medicinal Plants (1935), Sri Lankan Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia (1937), Senehe shathakam (1940), Thel beheth potha (book of Medicinal Oils) in 1954, Atheesara Chikithsawa (Diareal treatments) in 1962, Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants (1963), Purana Rahas thel beheth Potha (Ancient secretes of Medicinal Oils) in 1969, Desheeya Vaidya Sabdakoshaya (Dictionary of Indigenous Medicine) in 1970, Go Rathnaya (Treating Cows) in 1980, Desheeya Guli Kalka Sagaraya (Edible Medicines) in 1999. In 2015 Minister of Health, Nutrition & Indigenous Medicine Dr. Rajitha Dissanayake initiated promotion of Cannabis for Indigenous Medicine. In 2017 a comprehensive book about Cannabis was written by W.S. Weliange. Government interference is necessary to educate people about the overall importance of Cannabis for health, society and the Nature.
Cannabis and Tobacco in Precolonial and Colonial Africa
Chris S. Duvall
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History (2017)
10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.44
Cannabis and tobacco have longstanding roles in African societies. Despite botanical and pharmacological dissimilarities, it is worthwhile to consider tobacco and cannabis together because they have been for centuries the most commonly and widely smoked drug plants. Cannabis, the source of marijuana and hashish, was introduced to eastern Africa from southern Asia, and dispersed widely within Africa mostly after 1500. In sub-Saharan Africa, cannabis was taken into ethnobotanies that included pipe smoking, a practice invented in Africa; in Asia, it had been consumed orally. Smoking significantly changes the drug pharmacologically, and the African innovation of smoking cannabis initiated the now-global practice. Africans developed diverse cultures of cannabis use, including Central African practices that circulated widely in the Atlantic world via slave trading. Tobacco was introduced to Africa from the Americas in the late 1500s. It gained rapid, widespread popularity, and Africans developed distinctive modes of tobacco production and use. Primary sources on these plants are predominantly from European observers, which limits historical knowledge because Europeans strongly favored tobacco and were mostly ignorant or disdainful of African cannabis uses. Both plants have for centuries been important subsistence crops. Tobacco was traded across the continent beginning in the 1600s; cannabis was less valuable but widely exchanged by the same century, and probably earlier. Both plants became cash crops under colonial regimes. Tobacco helped sustain mercantilist and slave-trade economies, became a focus of colonial and postcolonial economic development efforts, and remains economically important. Cannabis was outlawed across most of the continent by 1920. Africans resisted its prohibition, and cannabis production remains economically significant despite its continued illegality.
Cannabis condemned: the proscription of Indian hemp.
Kendell, R.
Addiction, 98(2), 143–151.(2003).
doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00273.x
Aims To find out how cannabis came to be subject to international narcotics legislation. Method Examination of the records of the 1925 League of Nations’ Second Opium Conference, of the 1894 Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission and other contemporary documents. Findings Although cannabis (Indian hemp) was not on the agenda of the Second Opium Conference, a claim by the Egyptian delegation that it was as dangerous as opium, and should therefore be subject to the same international controls, was supported by several other countries. No formal evidence was produced and conference delegates had not been briefed about cannabis. The only objections came from Britain and other colonial powers. They did not dispute the claim that cannabis was comparable to opium, but they did want to avoid a commitment to eliminating its use in their Asian and African territories.
*Cannabis, Evolution and Ethnobotany
Robert C Clarke and Mark Merlin
University of California Press
https://magicgreenery.com/download/i...Merlin2013.pdf remove the s from https if needed
Cannabis is one of the world’s most useful plant groups. It has been a part of human culture for thousands of years beginning in
Eurasia, and today it is associated with people in almost all parts of the world. Although Cannabis is most often thought of as a
“drug plant,” its use for a huge number of other purposes including fiber, food, paper, medicine, and so on is almost
unparalleled, ranking it with the coconut palm and bamboos. Cannabis is truly a remarkable genus of multipurpose plants with
extensive and complicated histories. A fully comprehensive, documented history of Cannabis’s evolution and its widespread,
diverse use by humans has never been published. This book is an attempt to accomplish that task. The evolution of Cannabis and
the great variety of human-Cannabis relationships are presented here in greater depth than ever before. How this project
developed and progressed is an interesting story in itself.
The coauthors have worked earnestly over the past 15 years or more to produce this book; however, they began to focus their
scholarly and scientific interests on Cannabis well before their collaboration started in 1996. Both Mark Merlin and Robert
Clarke first initiated their research on Cannabis while enrolled in undergraduate programs in the University of California system
at their respective campuses decades ago. Their independent and joint field work involving the genus necessitated extensive
travel across several continents to countless libraries and museums, complemented by innumerable interviews in regions where
Cannabis has either ancient roots or only a relatively modern history of cultivation and use. This volume represents the better
part of two scholarly careers spent following the historic trail of both the evolutionary biology and ethnobotanical heritage of
Cannabis.
Cannabis in Ancient Central Eurasian Burials
Mark D. Merlin and Robert C. Clarke
In ANCIENT PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Edited by Scott M. Fitzpatrick
https://d2r6h7ytneza1l.cloudfront.ne.. .ck_Excerpt.pdf
Over the vast time span within which humans have known and used Cannabis for many purposes, it has been heralded as one of our supreme resources and cursed as one of our utmost burdens. Today the consumption of mind-altering Cannabis plant material for recreational or medicinal reasons is widely known. However, the original and early use of psychoactive Cannabis may have been principally for ritualistic religious purposes (for a comprehensive discussion of the evolutionary biology and ethnobotanical history of the genus Cannabis, see Clarke and Merlin 2013; also see Duvall 2015; Small 2015). The natural origin area of Cannabis was most likely the central steppe and forest zones of Eurasia. Early modern humans probably first encountered and utilized one or more of the products of this annual, herbaceous genus in its native biogeographical range. Remarkable early twentiethand twenty-first-century discoveries of archaeobotanical remains in ancient burials confirm the nonfood and nonfiber use of Cannabis in Central Eurasia at least by the first millennium BCE. In these cases, Cannabis appears to have been used for mind-altering ceremonial, purification, or therapeutic purposes. This chapter focuses on the presence and putative uses of psychoactive Cannabis in ancient burials that are well over two thousand years old and found in southeastern Russia and western China.
Cannabis in Asia: its center of origin and early cultivation, based on a synthesis of subfossil pollen and archaeobotanical studies
John M. McPartland,· William Hegman ,· Tengwen Long
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany
doi:10.1007/s00334-019-00731-8
Biogeographers assign the Cannabis centre of origin to “Central Asia”, mostly based on wild-type plant distribution data. We sought greater precision by adding new data: 155 fossil pollen studies (FPSs) in Asia. Many FPSs assign pollen of either Cannabis or Humulus (C –H ) to collective names (e.g. Cannabis/Humulus or Cannabaceae). To dissect these aggregate data,
we used ecological proxies. C –H pollen in a steppe assemblage (with Poaceae, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae) was identified as wild-type Cannabis. C –H pollen in a forest assemblage (Alnus, Salix, Quercus, Robinia , Juglans) was identified as Humulus . C –H pollen curves that upsurged alongside crop pollen were identified as cultivated hemp. Subfossil seeds (fruits) at archaeological sites also served as evidence of cultivation. All sites were mapped using geographic information system software. The oldest C –H pollen consistent with Cannabis dated to 19.6 ago (Ma), in northwestern China. However, Cannabis and Humulus diverged 27.8 Ma, estimated by a molecular clock analysis. We bridged the temporal gap between the divergence date and the oldest pollen by mapping the earliest appearance of Artemisia . These data converge on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, which we deduce as the Cannabis centre of origin, in the general vicinity of Qinghai Lake. This co-localizes with the first steppe community that evolved in Asia. From there, Cannabis first dispersed west (Europe by 6 Ma) then east (eastern
China by 1.2 Ma). Cannabis pollen in India appeared by 32.6 thousand years (ka) ago. The earliest archaeological evidence was found in Japan, 10,000 bce , followed by China.
[FONT=PÊˇø◊îúY¿¥*†°∂‡XËÊˇø0IπY¥ü]Cannabis in Form Information on Cannabis[/FONT]
https://www.academia.edu/27477304/Cannabis_in_Form_Information_o n_Cannabis?auto=download&email _work_card=download-paper
General Information on Cannabis 150 Pg.
Cannabis Indica in 19th-Century Psychiatry.
CARLSON, E. T.
American Journal of Psychiatry, 131(9), 1004–1007. (1974).
doi:10.1176/ajp.131.9.1004
The author presents a stuck ofthe history and usage of cannabis indicus (the 19th-century pharmacological term referring to the plant we today call cannabis sativa indica). His review ofthe drug’s physiological and psychological effects reveals that most ofthe effects reported in the 1960s were known to writers ofthe 19th century, when the drug was alternate/v considered a curefor and a cause ofinsanity.
Cannabis in Eurasia: origin of human use and Bronze Age trans-continental connections
Tengwen Long, Mayke Wagner, Dieter Demske, Pavel E. Tarasov
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany · June 2016
DOI: 10.1007/s00334-016-0579-6
A systematic review of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental records of cannabis (fibres, pollen, achenes and imprints of achenes) reveals its complex history in Eurasia. A multiregional origin of human use of the plant is proposed, considering the more or less contemporaneous appearance of cannabis records in two distal parts (Europe and East Asia) of the continent. A marked increase in cannabis achene records from East Asia between ca. 5,000 and 4,000 cal bp might be associated with the establishment of a trans-Eurasian exchange/migration network through the steppe zone, influenced by the more intensive exploitation of cannabis achenes popular in Eastern Europe pastoralist communities. The role of the Hexi Corridor region as a hub for an East Asian spread of domesticated plants, animals and cultural elements originally from Southwest Asia and Europe is highlighted. More systematic, interdisciplinary and well-dated data, especially from South Russia and Central Asia, are necessary to address the unresolved issues in understanding the complex history of human cannabis utilisation.
Cannabis in India: Ancient lore and modern medicine
Ethan Budd Russo
In book: Cannabinoids as Therapeutics March 2006
DOI: 10.1007/3-7643-7358-X_1
India is a land steeped in faith and mysticism. Ayurveda, combining the Sanskrit words for life and knowledge, is a system of medicine intertwined inextricably with these traits. That a core of belief combined with empirical experimentation could produce a viable medical regimen still widely practiced after well over 3000 years is astounding to Western physicians. Cannabis was similarly bound to faith and mysticism in India in the past, in the Hindu and Islamic traditions, as well as in numerous other minority religions [1]. Merlin recently explained it well [2], “with the powerful tools of modern science and human imagination, our understanding of our deep-rooted desire to experience ecstasy in the original sense of the word (to break the mind free from the body and communicate with the ‘gods’ or the ancestors) will become clear with time”. This chapter will seek to examine the medical claims for cannabis of the past, and place them in a contemporary light given current pharmacological knowledge. Ayurveda is based on a conceptual medical system that seeks to balance three functional elements, called doshas, that the human body is composed of, and are commonly represented as Vata or Vayu (ether or air), Pitta (fire and water) and Kapha (phlegm or water and earth). Nadkarni [3] has rejected these simple relationships in favor of more abstract assignations
Cannabis is indigenous to Europe and cultivation began during the Copper or Bronze age: a probabilistic synthesis of fossil pollen studies
John M. McPartland, · Geoffrey W. Guy · William Hegman
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany (2018) 27:635–648
doi:10.1007/s00334-018-0678-7
Conventional wisdom states Cannabis sativa originated in Asia and its dispersal to Europe depended upon human transport. Various Neolithic or Bronze age groups have been named as pioneer cultivators. These theses were tested by examining fossil pollen studies (FPSs), obtained from the European Pollen Database. Many FPSs report Cannabis or Humulus (C /H ) with collective names (e.g. Cannabis /Humulus or Cannabaceae). To dissect these aggregate data, we used ecological proxies to differentiate C /H pollen, as follows: unknown C /H pollen that appeared in a pollen assemblage suggestive of steppe (Poaceae, Artemisia , Chenopodiaceae) we interpreted as wild-type Cannabis. C /H pollen in a mesophytic forest assemblage (Alnus, Salix, Populus ) we interpreted as Humulus. C /H pollen curves that upsurged and appeared de novo alongside crop pollen grains we interpreted as cultivated hemp. FPSs were mapped and compared to the territories of archaeological cultures. We analysed 479 FPSs from the Holocene/Late Glacial, plus 36 FPSs from older strata. The results showed C /H pollen consistent with wild-type C. sativa in steppe and dry tundra landscapes throughout Europe during the early Holocene, Late Glacial, and previous glaciations. During the warm and wet Holocene Climactic Optimum, forests replaced steppe, and Humulus dominated. Cannabis retreated to steppe refugia. C /H pollen consistent with cultivated hemp first appeared in the Pontic-Caspian steppe refugium. GIS mapping linked cultivation with the Copper age Varna/Gumelni?a culture, and the Bronze age Yamnaya and Terramara cultures. An Iron age steppe culture, the Scythians, likely introduced hemp cultivation to Celtic and Proto-Slavic cultures.
Cannabis Prohibition in Egypt, 1880–1939: From Local Ban to League of Nations Diplomacy
Liat Kozma
Middle Eastern Studies (2011) Vol. 47, No. 3, 443–460,
DOI: 10.1080/00263206.2011.553890
German criminologist Sebastian Scheer recently challenged the North American focus of drug policy research. Most US and non-US scholarship, he argued, explains drug prohibition, and especially cannabis prohibition, in terms of American domestic policy and the 1937 American Marihuana Tax Act. The history of international cannabis prohibition is often narrated as an extension of the prohibition era, of American relations with its southern neighbours and with its Mexican immigrants. International prohibition, however, dates back to 1925 and to the League of Nations’ Second Opium Convention, in which the US did not play a leading role at all. The role of Italy, South Africa, Egypt and Turkey in international cannabis prohibition, he claimed, is largely overlooked.1 Focusing on Egypt, this article thus fills a gap in drug policy literature. James Mills’ Cannabis Britanica confronted the North American bias of cannabis scholarship by focusing on the Indian case. In one of his chapters, and then in a more recent article, Mills examined League of Nations debates, and thus Egypt’s role in international prohibition. Mills’ argument, in a nutshell, is that the Egyptian delegation’s uncompromising support of prohibition was a direct consequence of British imperial interests in the 1920s. It was also colonial medical doctors’ reports regarding the connection between cannabis and insanity that convinced the Egyptians that hashish was indeed dangerous. The Egyptian stand on cannabis, he claims, had no precedent in Egypt’s international diplomacy in the late nineteenth or early twentieth centuries.2 Relying, as he does, solely on British and League of Nations’ documentation, Mills presents only a partial picture of how cannabis prohibition was conceived of in Egypt itself, sometimes in conflict and sometimes in dialogue with colonial assumptions and policies. Like Ronen Shamir and Daphna Hacker, in their discussion of the 1894 Indian Hemp Commission, I maintain here that elite notions of class distinctions and civilizing of the lower classes were at the heart of indigenous debates on cannabis consumption and prohibition.3 This article, then, queries Mills’ conclusions by going back almost five decades and examining policies, elite discourses and colonial debates within Egypt.
Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) in ancient clay plaster of Ellora Caves, India
M. Singh, M. M. Sardesai
Current science 110(5):884-891 March 2016
DOI: 10.18520/cs/v110/i5/884-891
The present research trend is to explore sustainable construction materials having least environmental impact that also encapsulate in terms of our natural resources. The present communication discusses the use of raw hemp as an organic additive in the clay plaster of the 6th century AD Buddhist Caves of Ellora, a World Heritage Site. Cannabis sativa L. admixed in the clay plaster has been identified using scanning electron microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and stereomicroscopic studies and the results are compared with fresh specimens. The study indicates that many valuable properties of hemp were known to the ancient Indians in the 6th century AD.
Cannabis utilization and diffusion patterns in prehistoric Europe: a critical analysis of archaeological evidence
John McPartland, William Hegman
November 2017 Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 27(Suppl 4)
DOI: 10.1007/s00334-017-0646-7
Archaeological evidence of Cannabis sativa is comprised of textiles, cordage, fibre and seeds, or pottery impressions of those materials, as well as pseudoliths and phytoliths (pollen is not addressed here). Previous summaries of this evidence connect hemp with Bronze and Iron Age cultures in Europe. This study improves upon earlier summaries by: (1) accessing a larger database; (2) relying on original studies instead of secondary sources; (3) stratifying evidence by its relative robustness or validity. We coupled digital text-searching engines with internet archives of machine-readable texts, augmented by citation tracking of retrieved articles. The database was large, so we limited retrieval to studies that predated 27 bce for west-central Europe, and pre-ce 400 for eastern Europe. Validity of evidence was scaled, from less robust (e.g., pottery impressions of fibre) to more robust (e.g. microscopic analysis of seeds). Archaeological sites were mapped using ArcGIS 10.3. The search retrieved 136 studies, a yield four-fold greater than previous summaries when parsed to our geographic/time constraints. Only 12.5% of studies came from secondary literature. No robust evidence supports claims of Neolithic hemp usage. One Copper Age site in southeastern Europe shows robust evidence (from the Gumelni?a-Varna culture). More robust evidence appears during the Bronze Age in southeastern Europe (Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures). An Iron Age steppe culture, the Scythians, likely introduced hemp cultivation to Celtic, Slavic and Finno-Ugric cultures.The results correlate with a recent palynology study of fossil pollen in Europe. We discuss possible autochthonous domestication of Cannabis in Europe.
Cannabis utilization and diffusion patterns in prehistoric Europe: a critical analysis of archeological evidence
John M. McPartland, William Hegman
Online Resource 1, Extended methods
• accuracy and precision of various dating methods
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...pdf/references
The robustness (validity) of inferences made from archaeobotanical evidence
• textiles, cordage
• fiber
• phytoliths
• pseudoliths
• seeds
• pottery impressions of fiber or seeds
• wood charcoal
• phytochemical and genetic approaches
CONCEPTUAL REVIEW ON VIJAYA (CANNABIS SATIVA LINN.): A FORGOTTEN AMBROSIA
G.Siva Ram et al /
Int. J. Res. Ayurveda Pharm. 9 (2), 2018
DOI: 10.7897/2277-4343.09228
Vijaya (Cannabis sativa Linn.) is associated with spiritual and medicinal aspect of Indian cultural heritage. Currently it is a controlled substance placed
under Schedule-1 in the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances due to its abusive & narcotic nature. Ayurveda, the science of life has details regarding Vijaya identification, cultivation techniques, collection method, purification process, formulations, indications, antidotes, specific dietetics, etc. According to Ayurveda Vijaya, an analeptic herb is originated from amrita (ambrosia) & having the properties of Visha (poison) requires Sodhana (purification) to be utilized as a medicament. Purification helps to detoxify the unwanted qualities & also improves the therapeutic value.
Approximately fifty diseases have been cited in Ayurvedic classics which can be treated with single or compound preparations of Vijaya. Bioavailability
& efficacy is very quick as it is an ushna virya (hot potency) herb having Tikshna (sharp), Vyavayi (bioavailability even before digestion) & Yogavahi
(synergistic action) properties. In this twenty first century research in the therapeutic aspects of Cannabis sativa lead to an increase in the awareness &
knowledge of the ‘medical Cannabis’ among the scientific community. Revalidation of the medicinal evidence of Vijaya present in the ancient
Ayurvedic literature provides scope for more refined research.
Cultivation and manufacture of linen and hemp in New Spain, 1777-1800 (IN SPANISH)
Written by Ramón María Serrera Contreras
https://books.google.es/books?id=p9U...20grua&f=false
DEFORESTATION, CANNABIS CULTIVATION AND SCHWINGMOOR FORMATION AT CORS LLYN (LLYN MIRE), CENTRAL WALES
CN French, PD Moore –
New Phytologist, 1986 - Wiley Online Library
https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/...1986.tb00823.x
DOIL 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1986.tb00823.x
Find PDF
Pollen and macrofossil diagrams from the schwingmoor sediments of Llyn Mire are presented. Prior to the formation of the schwingmoor, Cannabis sativa was cultivated around Llyn lake, first to the east and later to the west of the basin. Despite Cannabis cultivation so close to Llyn, there is no evidence to suggest that the lake was used for retting purposes. A period of woodland clearance occurred immediately after the Cannabis cultivation and this process may have been responsible for the changes which led to schwingmoor formation in the basin. It is suggested that increased soil erosion into the lake, together with some eutrophication, encouraged the colonization of the lake surface by a floating mat of vegetation. The schwingmoor was formed in historic times by a floating carpet of such taxa as Carex rostrata, Sphagnum recurvum and Sphagnum section Subsecunda. The mat was initiated in the western part of the basin.
The use made of Cannabis/Humulus pollen density as a marker horizon in these studies demanded that these pollen taxa should be adequately separated, and the large numbers of grains of this type present in the sediments permitted the employment of numerical methods based on pore protrusion, which are described here.
Early phytocannabinoid chemistry to endocannabinoids and beyond
Raphael Mechoulam, Lumír O. Hanuš, Roger Pertwee, Allyn C. Howlett
Nature Reviews Neuroscience volume 15, pages 757–764 (2014)
DOI: 10.1038/nrn3811
Isolation and structure elucidation of most of the major cannabinoid constituents — including ?9-tetrahydrocannabinol (?9-THC), which is the principal psychoactive molecule in Cannabis sativa — was achieved in the 1960s and 1970s. It was followed by the identification of two cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s and the early 1990s and by the identification of the endocannabinoids shortly thereafter. There have since been considerable advances in our understanding of the endocannabinoid system and its function in the brain, which reveal potential therapeutic targets for a wide range of brain disorders.
In Japanese but easy to translate with Google translate
Fossil hemp fruits in the earliest Jomon period from the Okinoshima site, Chiba Prefecture, Japan
Makiko Kobayashi Arata Momohara, Susumu Okitsu, Seiichi Yanagisawa and Tozo Okamoto
https://hisbot.jp/journalfiles/1601/1601_011-018.pdf
Fruits of Cannabis sativa were found from the sediment of the earliest Jomon period at the Okinoshima site, Tateyama City, Chiba Prefecture, central Japan. The fruit of Cannabis sativa can be distinguished from that of Humulus by the size and morphology. The stones of Humulus lupulus and H. scandens have a circlular lateral view and a circular or heart-shaped attachment on the top, and lacks a shallow hollow at the base. The stone of Humulus lupulus is smaller than that of Cannabis sativa. The fruits obtained from the Okinoshima site and those of Cannabis sativa both have an ovoid lateral view, a round knob on the top instead of a heart-shaped attachment, and a shallow hollow at the base. Thus the fruits of the Okinoshima site were identified as Cannabis sativa, the oldest record of its fruits in the world, although its fibers have been found from the sediments of the incipient Jomon period at the Torihama shell midden, Fukui Prefecture. Contrary to fossil fibers that can be imported from outside Japan, existence of fossil fruits implies that Cannabis sativa grew in Japan in the early Jomon period. Hemp may have been cultivated and utilized around the site
From schizophrenia to sainthood – Tajuddin Fakir
Amruta Huddar, Tasneem Raja, Sanjeev Jain, Swaran P. Singh
Asian Journal of Psychiatry xxx (xxxx) xxx
DOI: 10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102465
This paper discusses the case of Tajuddin, a patient in the mental asylum of Nagpur towards the end of the 19th century. Discussions are based on hospital records and annual reports and relevant literature review of the life and times of Tajuddin. Hospital and associated records indicate that Tajuddin was thought to be suffering from cannabis psychosis. He was released from the British army for inappropriate behaviour and was admitted to the Nagpur Mental Asylum, currently a Regional Mental Hospital. During his inpatient stay Tajuddin was believed to have special powers and was considered a saint. The hospital, its staff and patients continue to pay homage to Tajuddin to this day. Religious Trusts established in his name extend all the way up to Mecca. His followers include high ranking officers and Bollywood celebrities. Tajuddin was a charismatic leader, despite suffering from what currently may be considered schizophrenia. His case reflects a curious contradiction of the cultural understandings of psychosis and the shifting sands on which psychiatry’s diagnostic foundations are built.
*Frozen Tombs of Siberia: The Pazyryk Burials of Iron Age Horsemen.
Rudenko, Sergei Ivanovich (1970).
University of California Press. ISBN 0520013956.
https://historyandsoon.wordpress.com.. .zyryk-burials/
https://sci-hub.tw/10.1525/aa.1973.75.4.02a01350
https://issuu.com/horsebackarchers/d...the_altai_moun
Giorgio Samorini Network
https://samorini.it/
Presentation This web-site wants to bring cognitive contributions and instruments for the study of the phenomenological field of the psychoactive drugs; a field of research known as Science of Drugs.
This web-site does not deal with the problematic aspects of the drugs, nor is interested on the apologetical aspects related to their modern use, but reports a bulk of scientific data which concern the drugs as phenomenon, in their relationship with the living beings, especially the human beings.
The editor of this web-site is an independent researcher specialized on the ethnobotany and the anthropology of drugs, author of specialized books and writings in Italian and in other languages (see his bibliography).
Although many texts of this site are in Italian, English titles are everywhere present, and this double-language is applied to the texts of different places of the site; furthermore, the wide section “Documentation” contains documents in many languages. All the translations from the other languages vs. Italian are edited by the author of the site.
The data here presented are referenced by specific bibliographies located at the bottom of each page, and integrated in the section “Documentation”.
HASHISH IN ISLAM 9TH TO 18TH CENTURY
GABRIEL G. NAHAS,
Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med.
Vol. 58, No. 9, December 1982
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art...00095-0056.pdf
CANNABIS was used as an intoxicant @hang) in India and Iran as far back as 1000 B.C.1,2 It was adopted in the Moslem Middle East 1,800 years later, two centuries after the death of the prophet Mohammed. Indeed, during his life time (A.D. 570-632), the use of cannabis preparations (known in the Middle East as hashish, which means "grass" in Arabic) was unknown. This might be the reason why the prophet did not explicitly forbid in the holy Koran intoxication by cannabis, although he proscribed that induced by fermented beverages (alcohol, wine, beer). There is no evidence that the Arabs became familiar with the intoxicating properties of hashish before the ninth century. At that time, they had already conquered Iraq and Syria and swept eastward to the border of Persia and Central Asia and westward through Asia Minor, North Africa, and Spain. (It was in 752 that the relentless Muslim expansion was halted at Poitiers by the Frankish king Charles Martel.) In the ninth century, well after the establishment in A.D. 750 of the splendid Abasside caliphate in Bagdad, noted for its universities, Arab scholars translated the Greek texts of Dioscorides and Galen, and became familiar with the medicinal properties of cannabis. One physician of the early 10th century, Ibn Wahshiyah, warned of possible complications resulting from use of hashish. In his book, On Poisons, he claimed that the plant extract might cause death when mixed with other drugs. Another physician, the Persian born al-Rhazes, counselled against over-prescribing cannabis.' Traders travelling to Persia from India and Central Asia also may have spread knowledge of the plant's medicinal properties. the use of hashish as an intoxicant surfaced in Islam. Called hashish instead of bhang, the Hindu designation, it was first consumed by members of religious Persian and Iraqui sects located at the eastern periphery of the Islamic empire which bordered the central steppes where the plant had its origins. And there was little cultural opposition at first because the holy Koran, which formulates in detail all of the rules of daily Muslim living, does not forbid explicitly the consumption of cannabis, although it proscribes the use of fermented beverages. And around A.D. 1000 the Fatima King al-Hakim issued an edict prohibiting the sale of alcohol throughout Syria and Egypt,3 but did not ban cannabis.
Hashish in Morocco and Lebanon A comparative study
Kenza Afsahi Salem Darwich
International Journal of Drug Policy (2016),
doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.02.024
Maghreb and Middle East have a long history of consumption, production and marketing of cannabis. Over the past 12 centuries, migration, trade and different spiritual practices and trends have led to the expansion of cannabis markets. This long period is marked by stages and rifts caused by foreign interference, a worldwide prohibition of cannabis at the beginning of the 20th century and increased global demand in the 1960s. In the 1960s and the 1970s,
global cannabis production increased, particularly in developing countries. Morocco and Lebanon became major producers of hashish for export to markets in West and Central Europe, Africa and the Middle East. The two countries have cultural and religious commonalities and similar socio-economic conditions in cannabis production areas. However, there are also some important differences in the way crop growing areas have developed in
the Rif and in the Beqaa. Unlike in Morocco where cannabis is a traditional and locally consumed crop, cannabis consumption in Lebanon remains marginal. By using a comparative approach, this paper aims to evaluate changes in production in the traditional areas of cannabis cultivation in the Rif and the Beqaa and to better understand the role that these countries play in current trends in the global cultivation and consumption of cannabis
Hemp in ancient rope and fabric from the Christmas Cave in Israel: Talmudic background and DNA sequence identification
Terence M. Murphy, Nahum Ben-Yehuda , R.E. Taylor, John R. Southon
Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 2579e2588
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.05.004
The “Christmas Cave”, a cave in the Qidron Valley near the Dead Sea and Qumran, has yielded a complex collection of plant-derived rope and fabric artifacts. Using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify DNA of the samples, we estimated the sizes and determined restriction patterns and base sequences of chloroplast genes, primarily rbcL (gene for the large subunit of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase). DNA was successfully extracted from all samples, but was limited to sizes of approximately 200e300 base pairs. As expected, the DNA extracted from the samples was identified as coming primarily from flax (Linum usitatissamum L.), but two samples had a significant fraction, and all samples had at least a trace, of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) DNA. Artifacts from the Christmas Cave were thought to date from Roman times, but it was thought possible that some could be much older. Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)-based 14C dating confirmed that the samples contained representatives from both the Roman and Chalcolithic periods. This paper provides a synthesis of DNA, isotope, and literary analysis to illuminate
textile history at the Christmas Cave site.
Hemp Production in Italy
Stefano Amaducci
June 2005 Journal of Industrial Hemp 10(1):109-115
DOI: 10.1300/J237v10n01_09
After a short history of hemp in Italy, this article lists the events that have brought back the cultivation of this fibre crop in Italy in recent years. The cultivation technique used for baby hemp is briefly described and the preliminary results of its processing are given. Baby hemp is a hemp crop grown at high plant densities (400-500 plants m2) that is chemically desiccated when the height of 120-140 cm is reached and that is harvested with the machines used for flax. Advantages, problems and possible solutions for this technique are presented
HIGH POINTS: AN HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF CANNABIS
BARNEY WARF
Geographical Review (2014) Volume 104, Issue 4 414-438
DOI: 10.1111/j.1931-0846.2014.12038.x
Cannabis, including hemp and its psychoactive counterpart, has a long but
largely overlooked historical geography. Situating the topic within varied perspectives such as world-systems theory, Foucauldian biopolitics, and the moral economy of drugs, this paper charts its diffusion over several millennia, noting the contingent and uneven ways in which it was enveloped within varying social and political circumstances. Following a brief theorization, it explores the plant’s early uses in East and South Asia, its shift to the Middle East, and resultant popularity in the Arab world and Africa. Next, it turns to its expansion under colonialism, including deliberate cultivation by Portuguese and British authorities in the New World as part of the construction of a pacified labor force. The fifth section offers an overview of cannabis’s contested history in the United States, in which a series of early 20th-century moral panics led to its demonization; later, the drug enjoyed gradual liberalization. Keywords: cannabis, marijuana, hemp, drugs, moral geographies
History of Cannabis and Its Preparations in Saga, Science, and Sobriquet
Ethan B. Russo
CHEMISTRY & BIODIVERSITY – Vol. 4 (8):1614-48 (2007)
DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.200790144
Cannabis sativa L. is possibly one of the oldest plants cultivated by man, but has remained a source of controversy throughout its history.Whether pariah or panacea, this most versatile botanical has provided a mirror to medicine and has pointed the way in the last two decades toward a host of medical challenges from analgesia to weight loss through the discovery of its myriad biochemical attributes and the endocannabinoid system wherein many of its components operate. This study surveys the history of cannabis, its genetics and preparations. A review of cannabis usage in Ancient Egypt will serve as an archetype, while examining first mentions from various Old World cultures and their pertinence for contemporary scientific investigation. Cannabis historians of the past have provided promising clues to potential treatments for a wide array of currently puzzling medical syndromes including chronic pain, spasticity, cancer, seizure disorders, nausea, anorexia, and infectious disease that remain challenges for 21st century medicine. Information gleaned from the history of cannabis administration in its various forms may provide useful points of departure for research into novel delivery techniques and standardization of cannabis-based medicines that will allow their prescription for treatment of these intractable medical conditions.
Histories of Cannabis Use and Control in Nigeria, 1927–1967
Gernot Klantschnig
In: Drugs in Africa, Histories and Ethnographies of Use, Trade, and Control
Charles Ambler; Neil Carrier; Gernot Klantschnig
DOI: 10.1057/9781137321916_4
Much of the available research on illegal drugs, such as cannabis, heroin,
or cocaine, has shown a weak understanding of the drugs’ historical roots
in Africa and the domestic meanings of these substances and their control.
This has been a result of a lack of openly available sources on these substances and also because much of this work has been conducted by international control agencies or researchers working closely with them and hence research has often served an immediate policy purpose rather than a better historical understanding of drugs.
A few recent studies have started to alleviate these shortcomings. Explicitly challenging these ahistorical views, Emmanuel Akyeampong and Stephen Ellis have begun to sketch the longer history of West Africa’s role in the trade in cannabis, heroin, and cocaine dating it back to the beginning of the twentieth century. A few other authors have begun work on other illegal or quasi-legal substances in other parts of the continent. These new studies have been most successful at highlighting the historical dynamics of drugs and their control when they have tied their analyses to the more developed literature on the social history of alcohol—an explicit aim of many of the contributions in this volume as well
A mummy unearthed from the pastures of heaven
October 1994 National geographic 186(4):80-103
N. Polosmak
https://nationalgeographicbackissues.. .ober-1994.html
Locked in an icy burial chamber beneath the Siberian steppes for 2, 400 years, a Pazyryk gentle- woman comes to light along with possessions chosen for eternity.
ICE MUMMIES: SIBERIAN ICE MAIDEN
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transc...7siberian.html
Tonight on NOVA, sacrificial horses guard her tomb. Gold and silk adorn her body. For 24 centuries, she was frozen in time. Was she a priestess? A warrior chief? NOVA unearths the secrets of "The Siberian Ice Maiden".
The thunder of hooves on the Siberian steppes echoes a legendary past. Mounted tribes once ruled these high plateaus, where towering stone monuments reach toward the heavens. Golden treasures from these days are rare and enigmatic. But new finds cast light on a culture cloaked in mystery: Sacrificed animals, valued possessions, and a startling emissary from this age of warriors—a 2400 year old woman frozen in time. But this Ice Maiden will not be left to rest. Removed from the grave, her body has traveled half way around the world to be displayed and admired. Now, she is returning to Siberia, back to the scientist who discovered her, and who hopes to learn more of the Ice Maiden's secrets.
When Natalia Polosmak found this woman and the wealth of artifacts buried with her, it was celebrated as an archeological triumph. But now, taken from her tomb, the body has sparked passion and controversy—among both scientists and the people of her homeland.
Few archaeologists have ventured into the rugged Altay Mountains. But in 1993, Natalia Polosmak was determined to reach the Ukok Plateau. In a remote part of Asia where four countries converge, she was drawn by tales of an ancient people called the Pazyryk.
Iconic 2,500 year old Siberian princess 'died from breast cancer', reveals MRI scan
https://siberiantimes.com/science/ca...ique-mri-scan/
Studies of the mummified Ukok 'princess' - named after the permafrost plateau in the Altai Mountains where her remains were found - have already brought extraordinary advances in our understanding of the rich and ingenious Pazyryk culture.
The tattoos on her skin are works of great skill and artistry, while her fashion and beauty secrets - from items found in her burial chamber which even included a 'cosmetics bag' - allow her impressive looks to be recreated more than two millennia after her death.
Now Siberian scientists have discerned more about the likely circumstances of her demise, but also of her life, use of cannabis, and why she was regarded as a woman of singular importance to her mountain people.
Her use of drugs to cope with the symptoms of her illnesses evidently gave her 'an altered state of mind', leading her kinsmen to the belief that she could communicate with the spirits, the experts believe.
The MRI, conducted in Novosibirsk by eminent academics Andrey Letyagin and Andrey Savelov, showed that the 'princess' suffered from osteomyelitis, an infection of the bone or bone marrow, from childhood or adolescence
Identification of Cannabis Fiber from the Astana Cemeteries, Xinjiang, China, with Reference to Its Unique Decorative Utilization
TAO CHEN, SHUWEN YAO, MARK MERLIN, HUIJUAN MAI, ZHENWEI QIU, YAOWU HU, BO WANG, CHANGSUI WANG,
AND HONGEN JIANG
March 2014 Economic Botany 68(1)
DOI: 10.1007/s12231-014-9261-z
In the Turpan District of Xinjiang, China, large numbers of ancient clay figurines, with representations including equestrians, animals, and actors, have been excavated from the Astana Cemeteries and date from about the 3rd to the 9th centuries C.E. Based on visual inspection, the tails of some of the figurines representing horses are made of plant fibers. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, light microscope examination, and drying–twist tests demonstrated that these fibers were extracted from one or more stalks of hemp (Cannabis) plants. This is a unique report of the utilization of Cannabis bast fibers for figurine decoration in ancient Turpan.
INDIAN HEMP DRUGS AND INSANITY.
G. F. W. Ewens,
THE Indian Medical Gazette NOVEMBER, 1904.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art...71518-0021.pdf
the Superintendent of the Central Lunatic Asylum, Lahore, raises again the question which ten years ago was very much debated among medical men in India.
It will be observed that, as a result of his experience while in charge of the large asylum at Lahore, Capt. Evvens is of opinion (1) that there is a form of mental disease which seems to have a direct relation to the excessive use of hemp drugs, as "a definite effect following a definite cause (2) it has a " definite train of symptoms of a fairly regular character."
Those of us who were in India ten years ago will remember the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission.
Instruction to sow, cultivate and benefit flax and hemp in New Spain (IN SPANISH)
Written by Miguel de la Grua Talamanca and Branciforte
https://books.google.es/books?id=98p...20grua&f=false
Man and Cannabis in Africa: A Study of Diffusion
Brian M. du Toit
African Economic History No. 1 (Spring, 1976), pp. 17-35
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4617576...n_tab_contents
The past decade has seen an awakening of research interests regarding psychoactive and hallucinogenic drugs. While the new world is particulary rich in these natural products, no drug has seen a wide a distribution nor as universal an appeal as Cannabis. This hallucinogen is known by different local refferents but the most widely distributed is marijuana in the United States and Latin America, and hemp or Indian hemp in many of the Anglophone areas of the world. While it has near universial distrabution, it is nonetheless to the old world we must look for its origin and original acceptance.
Cannabis was originally cultivated as a fiber plant and only its leaves were used in the pharmacopeia of different peoples. Linnaeus classified it as a simple species Cannabis sativa, but recent research indicates there may well be several species. At this stage we are not concerned with this botanical question but intend to focus on the scocial use and diffusion of the plant through Africa.
In this paper we will examine in turn the historical, sociological, and linguistic evidence relating to the Cannabis plant in Africa. Then after a brief review of current hypotheses regarding the diffusion of Cannabis, we will propose a more encompassing to account for its spread in sub-Saharan Africa.
Marijuana Australiana.
John Lawrence Jiggens
https://eprints.qut.edu.au/15949/1/J...ens_Thesis.pdf
The word 'marijuana' was introduced to Australia by the US Bureau of Narcotics via the Diggers newspaper, Smith's Weekly, in 1938. Marijuana was said to be 'a new drug that maddens victims' and it was sensationally described as an 'evil sex drug'. The resulting tabloid furore saw the plant cannabis sativa banned in Australia, even though cannabis had been a well-known and widely used drug in Australia for many decades.
In 1964, a massive infestation of wild cannabis was found growing along a stretch of the Hunter River between Singleton and Maitland in New South Wales. The explosion in Australian marijuana use began there.It was fuelled after 1967 by US soldiers on rest and recreation leave from Vietnam. It was the Baby-Boomer young who were turning on. Pot smoking was overwhelmingly associated with the generation born in the decade after the Second World War. As the conflict over the Vietnam War raged in Australia,it provoked intense generational conflict between the Baby-Boomers and older generations. Just as in the US, pot was adopted by Australian Baby-Boomers as their symbol; and, as in the US, the attack on pot users served as code for an attack on the young, the Left, and the alternative.
In 1976,the 'War on Drugs ' began in earnest in Australia with paramilitary attacks on the hippie colonies at Cedar Bay in Queensland and! Tuntable Falls in New South Wales.Itwas a time of increasing US style prohibition characterised by 'tough-on-drugs' right-wing rhetoric, police crackdowns, numerous murders, and a marijuana drought followed quickly by a heroin plague; in short by a massive worsening of 'the drug problem'. During this decade, organised crime moved into the pot scene and the price of pot skyrocketed, reaching $450 an ounce in 1988. Thanks to the Americanisation of drugs policy, the black market made 'a killing'.
In Marijuana Australiana I argue that the 'War on Drugs' developed -not for health reasons -but for :reasons of social control; as a domestic counter-revolution against the Whitlamite, Baby-Boomer generation by older Nix.onite Drug War warriors like Queensland Premier, Bjelke-Petersen. It was a misuse of drugs policy which greatly worsened drug problems, bringing with it American-style organised crime.
As the subtitle suggests, Marijuana Australiana relies significantly on 'alternative' sources,and I trawl the waters of popular culture,. looking for songs, posters,comics and underground magazines to produce an 'underground' history of cannabis in Australia. This 'pop' approach is balanced with a hard-edged, quantitative analysis of the size of the marijuana market, the movement of price, and the seizure figures in the section called 'History By Numbers'. As Alfred McCoy notes, we need to understand drugs as commodities. It is only through a detailed understanding of the drug trade that the deeper secrets of this underground world can be revealed. In this section,I present an economic history of the cannabis market and formulate three laws of the market
Truely great book
*Marihuana - The First Twelve Thousand Years
Ernest L Abel
January 1980 Publisher: Plenum Press
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-2189-5
Introduction
Of all the plants men have ever grown, none has been praised and denounced as often as marihuana (Cannabis sativa). Throughout the ages, marihuana has been extolled as one of man's greatest benefactors and cursed as one of his greatest scourges. Marihuana is undoubtedly a herb that has been many things to many people. Armies and navies have used it to make war, men and women to make love. Hunters and fishermen have snared the most ferocious creatures, from the tiger to the shark, in its herculean weave. Fashion designers have dressed the most elegant women in its supple knit. Hangmen have snapped the necks of thieves and murderers with its fiber. Obstetricians have eased the pain of childbirth with its leaves. Farmers have crushed its seeds and used the oil within to light their lamps. Mourners have thrown its seeds into blazing fires and have had their sorrow transformed into blissful ecstasy by the fumes that filled the air.
Marihuana has been known by many names: hemp, hashish, dagga, bhang, loco weed, grass-the list is endless. Formally christened Cannabis sativa in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus, marihuana is one of nature's hardiest specimens. It needs little care to thrive. One need not talk to it, sing to it, or play soothing tranquil Brahms lullabies to coax it to grow. It is as vigorous as a weed. It is ubiquitous. It fluorishes under nearly every possible climatic condition.
It sprouts from the earth not meekly, not cautiously in suspense of where it is and what it may find, but defiantly, arrogantly, confident that whatever the conditions it has the stamina to survive. It is not a magnanimous herb. Plants unfortunate enough to fall in the shade of its serrated leaflets will find that marihuana does not share its sunlight. It wants it all. Marihuana also does not like to share its territory. It encroaches on its neighbors. Its roots gobble up all the nutrients in the soil, and like a vampire it sucks the life blood from the earth.
Marihuana is a very rapidly growing plant, attaining a usual height of three to twenty feet at maturity. Five hundred years ago, the French author Rabelais wrote that it was "sown at the first coming of the swallows and pulled out of the ground when the cicadies began to get hoarse."
Marihuana is dioecious, which means that there are sexually distinct male and female plants. At one time, farmers believed that only the females produced the intoxicating hashish resin. Now it is known that both sexes produce this gummy secretion. The male, however, manufactures less resin and produces flowers earlier than the female. To prevent a pollinating marriage, cannabis growers destroy these males as soon as they are detected. Had he known of this age-old custom, Freud might have written an insightful treatise on the symbolism of this bit of agricultural castration.
The intoxicating resin is secreted by glandular hairs located around the flowers and to a certain extent in the lower portions of the plant. The actual substance in the resin responsible for the plant's inebriating effects is a chemical called delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (~ THC). In very hot climates, as in India and North Africa, so much resin is produced that the plant appears to be covered with a sticky dew even as it bakes under the parching rays of the hot sun. This resin serves as a protective shield preventing loss of water from the plant to the dry air. And of course, the more resin, the more A 9 -THC likely to be present. Cannabis seeds are brownish and rather hard. When pressed, they yield a yellowish-green oil once used to make soap, lamp oil, paint, and varnish. Bird fanciers claim that hemp seed stimulates birds to develop superior plumage. While the seeds contain far less -THC than the leaves or flowers, the chemical is still present. Although there are no reports of any birds flying into trees or houses after feasting on a meal of cannabis seeds, it was by burning these seeds and inhaling the fumes given off that some ancient societies first experienced cannabis's intoxicating powers.
The stem of the plant is square and hollow and covered with strong fibers. The first step in removing these fibers is called retting and involves soaking the stems so that partial decomposition occurs. This disengages the nonfibrous tissue. The stem is then bent so that the fibers can separate. Once separated, they can be stripped away and spun into thread or twisted into cordage and rope.
Cannabis will grow under most conditions that will support life. It is inherently indestructible. Long after other species of plants have disappeared because of drought, infestation, or climatic changes, cannabis will still exist. Cannabis is one of nature's best examples of survival of the fittest. Depending on the conditions under which it grows, cannabis will either produce more resin or more fiber. When raised in hot, dry climates, resin is produced in great quantities and fiber quality is poor. In countries with mild, humid weather, less resin is produced and the fiber is stronger and more durable. It is because of these climate-related characteristics that most Europeans knew very little of the intoxicating properties of the cannabis plant until the nineteenth century when hashish was imported from India and the Arab countries. Prior to this time, cannabis was merely a valuable source of fiber and seed oil to most Europeans, nothing more. In India, Persia, and the Arab countries, the main value of the plant resided in its inebriating resin. People in these countries were also among the first to use cannabis fiber to make nets and ropes. But the sticky covering on the plant was what they valued most, especially where alcohol was proscribed by religious doctrine. Depending on his personal interests, the cannabis farmer could increase his yield of fiber or resin by various measures. To produce a plant with a better fiber, he grew his plants very close to one another. This reduced the amount of sunlight falling on individual plants and
promoted the growth of long stems and fibers. To obtain more resin, he sowed his seeds farther apart. This gave each plant more sunlight and forced the plant to secrete more resin in order to keep itself from drying out. But regardless of whether he was after the fiber or the resin, male plants were always destroyed before they could court the females, since the production of seeds by the female invariably reduced the quality of fiber and resin.
Cannabis was harvested by various methods. If the fiber were primarily of interest, the stems would be cut fairly close to the ground with a specially designed sickle with the blade set at right angles to the handle. Harvesting the resin was a different matter. People who grew cannabis for personal pleasure simply snipped some leaves whenever the desire moved them. In countries such as Nepal where cannabis became part of the agricultural economy, the resin was gathered more systematically but in a less sanitary fashion: after the female plants were ripe with their sticky coverings, workers were hired to run naked through the cannabis fields. As they brushed against the plants, a certain amount of resin would adhere to their bodies. At the end of each run they would scrape the sticky resin from their bodies and start again. Since cannabis resin and water do not mix very well, the perspiration from their sweating bodies did not find its way into these scrapings. (The same cannot be
said for whatever else was on their bodies.) After the harvesting was through, the scrapings were shaped into bricks and readied for market. Buyers were rarely finicky about anything other than how pleasureable was the intoxication they felt when they consumed their purchases.
New fossil evidence for the past cultivation and processing of hemp (Cannabis sativa) in Eastern England
R. H. W. BRADSHAW, P. COXON, J. R. A. GREIG, A. R. HALL
November 1981 New Phytologist
doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1981.tb02331.x
Fossil records of Cannabiaceae pollen and Cannabis achenes from Flandrian deposits at three sites in eastern England are presented as further evidence for the past cultivation of this crop. It is suggested that retting of hemp to extract fibre was carried out at each of the sites.
NORTH INDIA: THE CANNABIS SANCTUARY
https://www.indianlandraceexchange.c.. .bis-sanctuary/
Introduction - India has known about cannabis from the very dawn of the civilizations at the indus valley and has since used the plant for important life saving applications such as medicine, food, and even shelter. Inked in the ancient vedas by the Indian scholars are some of the earliest documented accounts of cannabis used as a medicine that goes back to 2000 BCE, and even the people who invaded India couldn’t stay too far from this plant,e.g. the Portuguese who captured Goa in 1510, quickly learned how cannabis played an important role in Indian culture, day to day applications and especially about the narcotic effects of the plant. A glimpse of which can be found in the Notes by Garcia de orta
O bangue é formado por folhas secas e hastes tentras de cânhamo (Canabis sativa, Lin.) que se fumam o mascam e que embriaga como o ópio.
Translation: Bangue (Bhang) is made of dry leaves and tender stemps of hemp, which they smoke or Garcia de orta A botanist who wrote about foreign cannabis colonies of Portugal in 1534 in his work "Glossário luso-asiatico". chew, and it intoxicates like opium Even during the British colonial rule in India which lasted over 200 years, in 1894 an extensive study was conducted and a report was published by an indo-british team known as Indian hemp drugs commission, which pinned down the Physical, psychological and socio-cultural effects of cannabis in india.
The plant itself is virtually found in every direction you go to in India However North India is widely cited as the biggest charas producing region,featuring the notorious and the elusive highland himalayan villages, spreading all the way from Kashmir to Himachal and down to the China border in Uttarakhand. Any kind of enquiry concerning cannabis in India is incomplete without understanding the role of north indian cannabis regions, such as - Jammu and Kashmir, himachal pradesh, haryana, punjab, uttar pradesh, uttrakhand and rajasthan.Although it is to be noted duely that punjab and haryana being flat lands amongst the listed states doesn't have any rigorous cultivation or large feral fields of cannabis anymore just like the capital state New Delhi where an exponentially rising population has already taken a severe toll on the nature and some of the regional cultivars from these areas have either vanished or are on the verge of being lost forever.
On the Natural History, Action, and Uses of Indian Hemp
Mon J Med Sci. 1851 Jul; 4(19): 26–45.
Alexander Christison, M.D., Edin.1
Indian hemp has been long known in India, Persia, and other Eastern countries as a medicinal and intoxicating agent, but was little known to Europeans until it was brought prominently into notice by Dr O'Shaughnessy of Calcutta, in the year 1839. [On Indian Hemp, &c.; Calcutta, 1839.]
The ancients were almost ignorant of its virtues. The Greek physicians, as we are told by Dioscorides, were acquainted with the emollient properties of the seeds of hemp ; but they seem to have been wholly unaware of the narcotic virtues of the plant (Diosc. iv. civ.). Galen and his contemporaries were not much more informed on the subject; for that author merely speaks of its seeds being sometimes used as a whet after supper, to create a de'sire for wine, but condemns the practice, because, when used freely, they heat the system and cause determination towards the head (Opera, ii. 53, Edit. Basiliae, 1549 ; De Facultatibus Alimentorum, c. xlix.). It is alleged, however, that hemp was known at an early period to the Chinese. In a communication to the Academie des Sciences in 1849, extracts are produced from a Chinese work, showing that so far back as a.d. 220, a Chinese physician, named Hoa-Tho, pro- duced insensibility in his patients by means of a preparation of hemp, and that operations were then performed without pain to the patient (Stanislas Julien, inComptes Rendus,&c., 1849, p. 197). This statement would, however, require further confirmation. There seems little doubt that in the year 600 the Hindoos were in the habit of employing hemp ; and that it has been in constant use ever since as a means of allaying pain, and more particularly as an intoxicating agent, among the inhabitants of the East.
ON THE PREPARATIONS OF THE INDIAN HEMP, OR GUJNJAH,* (Cannabis Indica)
W. B. O'SIAUGHNESSY,
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art...00864-0001.pdf
The narcotic effects of hemp are popularly known in the South of Africa, South America, Turkey, Egypt, Asia Minor, India, and the adjacent territories of the Malays, Burmese, and Siamese. In all these countries hemp is used in various forms, by the dissipated and depraved, as the ready agent of a pleasing intoxication. In the popular medicine of these nations, we find it extensively employed for a multitude of affections, especially those in which spasm or neuralgic pain are the prominent symptoms. But in Western Europe its use, either as a stimulant or as a remedy, is equally unknown. With the exception of the trial, as a frolic, of the Egyptian " hasheesh," by a few youths in Marseilles, and of the clinical use of the wine of hemp by Hahnemann, as shown in a sub. sequent extract, I have been unable to trace any notice of the employment of this drug in Europe. Much difference of opinion exists on the question, whether the hemp so abundant in Europe, even in high northern latitudes, is identical in specific characters with the hemp of Asia Minor and India. The extraordinary symptoms produced by the latter depend on a resinous secretion with which it abounds, and which seems totally absent in the European kind. The closest physical resemblance or even identity exists between both plants; difference of climate seems to me more than sufficient to account for the absence of the resinous secretion, and consequent want of narcotic power in that indigenous in colder countries.
Origin, Early History, Cultivation, and Characteristics of the Traditional Varieties of Moroccan Cannabis sativa L.
Fatima Bachir, Mohamed Eddouks, Mohamed Arahou, and Mohammed Fekhaoui
Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research Volume X, Number X, 2021
DOI: 10.1089/can.2021.0020
Background: Cannabis has been cultivated and used for centuries in the north Moroccan Rif (local name is kif). However, its history is poorly known and the date of its first introduction and dispersal in Morocco is still difficult to be precise.
Aim: The purpose of the present work is to review the literature on the origin, history, and cultivation of Cannabis in Morocco, as well as data on the morphological, genetic, and phytochemical characteristics of local cultivated varieties.
Discussion: Considering the importance of preserving the fragile environment of the Rif and the future development of the Moroccan medical Cannabis market, which will require authentication of the raw material, the use of local strains which are well adapted to the particular environment of the Rif is highly recommended. However, there is no document that summarizes and clarifies the nomenclature and the characteristics of local Moroccan Cannabis. In addition, the recent adoption by Rif growers of improved hybrid cultivars is obliterating the traits and peculiarities of Moroccan Cannabis through genetic introgression.
Conclusion: Summarizing and discussing the data from the literature on the characteristics of local Moroccan Cannabis varieties may be useful for their identification and the localization of the areas of the Rif region where their cultivation is still practiced.
Find PDF, I have
Physical evidence for the antiquity of Cannabis sativa L.
Fleming, M. P., and R. C. Clarke
Journal of the International Hemp Association 5(2): 80-95. 9 1998.
https://www.internationalhempassocia.. ./jiha5208.html
Cannabis has been an important economic crop plant for six millennia. Its uses for fiber, food, oil, medicine, and as a recreational/religious drug have been prevalent throughout this period. Recent palynological research into the agricultural and environmental history of Cannabis has produced curves for Cannabaceae pollen at a number of sites in Europe and America. Additional archaeological remains and written records provide evidence for both Old and New World occurrences. This paper discusses the origin, domestication and migration of hemp as a crop plant as documented by palynological and archaeological evidence. In addition, the comparative morphology of Cannabis andHumulus pollen grains is described, and the problems of interpreting Cannabaceae pollen in the stratigraphic record are discussed.
Phytochemical and genetic analyses of ancient cannabis from Central Asia
Ethan B. Russo, Hong-En Jiang, Xiao Li, Alan Sutton, Andrea Carboni, Francesca del Bianco, Giuseppe Mandolino, David J. Potter, You-Xing Zhao, Subir Bera, Yong-Bing Zhang, En-Guo Lü, David K. Ferguson, Francis Hueber, Liang-Cheng Zhao, Chang-Jiang Liu, Yu-Fei Wang, and Cheng-Sen
J Exp Bot. 2008 Nov; 59(15): 4171–4182.
DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern260
The Yanghai Tombs near Turpan, Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region, China have recently been excavated to reveal the 2700-year-old grave of a Caucasoid shaman whose accoutrements included a large cache of cannabis, superbly preserved by climatic and burial conditions. A multidisciplinary international team demonstrated through botanical examination, phytochemical investigation, and genetic deoxyribonucleic acid analysis by polymerase chain reaction that this material contained tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive component of cannabis, its oxidative degradation product, cannabinol, other metabolites, and its synthetic enzyme, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase, as well as a novel genetic variant with two single nucleotide polymorphisms. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination. To our knowledge, these investigations provide the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent, and contribute to the medical and archaeological record of this pre-Silk Road culture.
Preliminary report on a mid-19th century Cannabis pollen peak in NE Spain: Historical context and potential chronological significance
Valentí Rull and Teresa Vegas-Vilarrúbia
The Holocene
2014, Vol. 24(10) 1378–1383
DOI: 10.1177/0959683614540964
Cannabis sativa L. (hemp) was introduced in Europe from Asia Minor during classical Greek and Roman times. Since then, hemp pollen abundances between 10% and 80% in Late Holocene sediments have been considered indicative of the local or regional cultivation and/or retting of this plant. In this paper, a unique pollen peak of >60% recorded in Lake Montcortès (pre-Pyrenean foothills, NE Spain) is evaluated as a potential chronostratigraphic marker. Previously, this pollen peak was dated to ad 1757 using a depth–age model based on AMS 14C dates from sedimentary macrofossils, but a recent calibration of the model using varve counting has refined the date of the hemp pollen maximum to ad 1839. This date coincides with an outstanding socio-political shift from feudalism to liberalism in Spain and the corresponding dismantling of the royal navy, the main consumer of hemp fibre. These events produced a well-documented decline in Cannabis cultivation across the Iberian Peninsula. The sharpness of the Cannabis pollen peak, its accurate dating using annual varves and its almost exact coincidence with outstanding and widespread historical events suggest that this palynological landmark could be used as a chronostratigraphic marker for recent centuries. This possibility, as well as the geographical extent of this potential datum, should be confirmed with further studies.
P U R P L E and GOLD over THOUSANDS of YEARS
NATALIA POLOSMAK
HYPOTHESES AND FACTS Archaeology DISCOVERY OF SIBERIA
Science first hand : 30 Jan 2005 , Discovery of SIBERIA , volume 4, N1
https://scfh.ru/en/papers/purple-and...ands-of-years/
The first burial mounds with “frozen” tombs were discovered by V. V. Radlov (Katanda burial mound and a burial mound at the Berel burial site of the Pazyryk culture, Kazakhstan) in 1865. He was the first to find clothes preserved in ice. One of the most remarkable of his finds — the so-called Katanda caftan — is now exhibited at the State Historical Museum (Moscow). The collection of this museum has another unique find from the Katanda burial, a “tailcoat” of sable fur covered with Chinese silk (this garment is called a “tailcoat” because it is made in this style)
Recent palaeoenvironmental evidence for the processing of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in eastern England during the medieval period
Benjamin R. Gearey, M. Jane Bunting, Harry Kenward
Medieval Archaeology · January 2005
DOI: 10.1179/007660905X54125
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) — whose origins as a domesticated plant probably lie in C. Asia — has been cultivated in England since at least a.d. 800 (and before this perhaps in the Roman Period), mainly for its fibre, which was used to make sails, ropes, fishing nets and clothes, as well as for the oil from hempseed. Hemp cultivation may have reached a peak during the early 16th century, when Henry VIII decreed that increased hemp production was required to supply the expanding navy.33 Evidence for the locations where
the crop was cultivated and processed is available in several different forms, including written evidence in parish records and government reports, place-name evidence (e.g. Hempholme and some instances of Hempstead), and features on old maps, such as Hempisfield (hemp field).
Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893-94: A Critical Review
Oriana Josseau Kalant
The International Journal of the Addictions, 7(1), pp. 77-96, 1972
https://sci-hub.tw/10.3109/10826087209026763
Despite various attempts by the British authorities to regulate the use of hemp drugs in India, the matter had been left largely in the hands of provincial governments until the end of the 19th century. Laws and practices therefore varied widely from one region to another. In response to questions in the British Parliament, a Commission was set up in 1893 to examine the situation in Bengal, but on the initiative of the Governor General the scope of the inquiry was broadened to include the whole of British India. The present review consists of a summary of those sections of the Report which are of most interest to present day readers, followed by a critical appraisal of the Report and of its relevance to modern issues connected with cannabis use
Results of molecular analysis of an archaeological hemp(Cannabis sativa L.) DNA sample from North West China
Ashutosh Mukherjee, Satyesh Chandra Roy, S. De Bera, Hong-En Jiang, Xiao Li, Cheng-Sen Li, Subir Bera.
Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 55(4):481-485 · June 2008
DOI: 10.1007/s10722-008-9343-9
"Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivation and utilization is an ancient practice to human civilization. There are some controversies on the origin and subsequent spread of this species. Ancient plant DNA has proven to be a powerful tool to solve phylogenetic problems. In this study, ancient DNA was extracted from an archaeological specimen of Cannabis sativa associated with archaeological human remains from China. Ribosomal and Cannabis specific chloroplast DNA regions were PCR amplified. Sequencing of a species-specific region and subsequent comparison with published sequences were performed. Successful amplification, sequencing and sequence comparison with published data suggested the presence of hemp specific DNA in the archeological specimen. The role of Humulus japonicus Sieb. et Zucc. in the evolution of Cannabis is also indicated. The identification of ancient DNA of 2500 years old C.sativa sample showed that C.sativa races might have been introduced into China from the European–Siberian center of diversity."
Sedimentary cannabinol tracks the history of hemp retting
Marlène Lavrieux, Jérémy Jacob, Jean-Robert Disnar, Jean-Gabriel Bréheret, Claude Le Milbeau,Yannick Miras, and Valérie Andrieu-Ponel
Geology 41(7):751-754 July 2013
doi:10.1130/G34073.1 |
Hemp (Cannabis sp.) has been a fundamental plant for the development of human societies. Its fibers have long been used for textiles and rope making, which requires prior stem retting. This process is essential for extracting fi bers from the stem of the plant, but can adversely affect the quality of surface waters. The history of human activities related to hemp (its domestication, spread, and processing) is frequently reconstructed from seeds and pollen detected in archaeological sites or in sedimentary archives, but this method does not always make it possible to ascertain whether retting took place. Hemp is also known to contain phytocannabinoids, a type of chemicals that is specific to the plant. Here we report on the detection of one of these chemicals, cannabinol (CBN), preserved in a sediment record from a lake in the French Massif Central covering the past 1800 yr. The presence of this molecule in the sedimentary record is related to retting. Analysis of the evolution of CBN concentrations shows that hemp retting was a significant activity in the area until ca. A.D. 1850. These findings, supported by pollen analyses and historical data, show that this novel sedimentary tracer can help to better constrain past impacts of human activities on the environment
Siberian Princess reveals her 2,500 year old tattoos
The Siberian Times
https://siberiantimes.com/culture/ot...r-old-tattoos/
The ancient mummy of a mysterious young woman, known as the Ukok Princess, is finally returning home to the Altai Republic this month.
She is to be kept in a special mausoleum at the Republican National Museum in capital Gorno-Altaisk, where eventually she will be displayed in a glass sarcophagus to tourists.
For the past 19 years, since her discovery, she was kept mainly at a scientific institute in Novosibirsk, apart from a period in Moscow when her remains were treated by the same scientists who preserve the body of Soviet founder Vladimir Lenin.
To mark the move 'home', The Siberian Times has obtained intricate drawings of her remarkable tattoos, and those of two men, possibly warriors, buried near her on the remote Ukok Plateau, now a UNESCO world cultural and natural heritage site, some 2,500 metres up in the Altai Mountains in a border region close to frontiers of Russia with Mongolia, China and Kazakhstan.
Reconstruction of a warrior's tattoos, who was discovered on the same plateau as the 'Princess'. All drawings of tattoos, here and below, were made by Elena Shumakova, Institute of Archeology and Ethnography, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Science
They are all believed to be Pazyryk people - a nomadic people described in the 5th century BC by the Greek historian Herodotus - and the colourful body artwork is seen as the best preserved and most elaborate ancient tattoos anywhere in the world
Some Historical Aspects of Marijuana.
Winek, C. L.
Clinical Toxicology, 10(2), 243–253.(1977).
doi:10.3109/1556365770898796
Marijuana, by whatever species of Cannabis it is called, has been known to science and medicine for almost 5000 years. It is reported to have been contained in the Chinese Emperor Nuna' s Herbal dated 2737 B.C. It was not given the name Cannabis sativa L. until Linnaeus named it in 1753 A.D. In searching some of the older Materia Medica texts and journals, one finds reference to the medicinal uses of the plant and its products. In the 1868 edition (3rd) of Materia Medica for the Use of Students (Published by Lindsay & Blakiston, Philadelphia) by John B. Biddle, M.D. of the Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia the following is given on pp. 66-67:
Spiritual Benefit from Cannabis
Frederick J. Heide, Tai Chang, Natalie Porter, Eric Edelson, Joseph C. Walloch
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2021.1941443
Like many mind-altering plants, cannabis has been part of spiritual practices for thousands of years. It has deep roots in Hinduism, Islam, Rastafarianism, and indigenous traditions in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere. Yet almost no attention has been given to how contemporary adults employ it spiritually. A sample of 1087 participants (mean age = 38.9) completed an online survey assessing their use of cannabis and other substances, as well as spiritual and psychological characteristics. Spiritual benefit from cannabis was reported by 66.1% of the sample, and 5.5% reported it had sometimes been a spiritual hindrance. A MANOVA showed that those who reported spiritual benefit differed significantly from those who did not on several outcome variables, and a post hoc descriptive discriminant analysis revealed that expansiveness motivation, non-theistic daily spiritual experience, meditation frequency, and two mindfulness facets contributed most to differentiating the two groups. The majority of the sample (63%) was free of cannabis use disorder. Compared to disordered groups, the non-disordered group was significantly older and scored lower on experiential avoidance, psychological distress, and several motives for use. Results suggest that spiritual motives for cannabis use may be widespread. Implications for future research on spiritual use of cannabis are discussed.
No Pdf
Taming Cannabis: Drugs and Empire in Nineteenth-Century France
David A. Guba
Book, Amazon
Despite having the highest rates of cannabis use in the continent, France enforces the most repressive laws against the drug in all of Europe. Perhaps surprisingly, France was once the epicentre of a global movement to medicalize cannabis, specifically hashish, in the treatment of disease. In Taming Cannabis David Guba examines how nineteenth-century French authorities routinely blamed hashish consumption, especially among Muslim North Africans, for behaviour deemed violent and threatening to the social order. This association of hashish with violence became the primary impetus for French pharmacists and physicians to tame the drug and deploy it in the homeopathic treatment of mental illness and epidemic disease during the 1830s and 1840s. Initially heralded as a wonder drug capable of curing insanity,
Find Pdf
The Ancient Cultivation of Hemp
H. Godwin
Antiquity Volume 41, Issue 161 March 1967 , pp. 42-49 doi:10.1017/S0003598X00038928
THE discovery in a long pollen diagram from East Anglia of a substantial curve for a pollen-grain referable to Cannabis sativa, L., the Indian hemp, raised the hope that we might, through palynology, have the means of tracing the history of cultivation of this important and sinister economic plant in England and in Western Europe. It was clearly essential that pollen-analytic evidence should be related fully to existing historical and archaeological knowledge, and aided by a notice in this journal (ANTIQUITY, 1964, 287), and by the notable kindness of a great many academic colleagues, I have put together a condensed historical account of the plant in antiquity as preface to a description of the pollen-analytic data.
The oldest archeological data evidencing the relationship of Homo sapiens with psychoactive plants: A worldwide overview
GIORGIO SAMORINI
Journal of Psychedelic Studies
DOI: 10.1556/2054.2019.008
Modern sophisticated archeometric instruments are increasingly capable of detecting the presence of psychoactive plant sources in archeological contexts, testifying the antiquity of humanity’s search for altered states of consciousness.
The purpose of this article is to provide a general picture of these findings, covering the main psychoactive plant sources of the world, and identifying the most ancient dates so far evidenced by archeology. This review is based on the archeological literature identifying the presence of psychoactive plant sources, relying on original research documents. The research produced two main results: (a) a systematization of the types of archeological evidence that testify the relationship between Homo sapiens and these psychoactive sources, subdivided into direct evidence (i.e., material findings, chemical, and genetic) and indirect evidence (i.e., anthropophysical, iconographic, literary, and paraphernalia); and (b) producing a list of the earliest known dates of the relationship of H. sapiens with the main psychoactive plant sources. There appears to be a general diffusion of the use of plant drugs from at least the Neolithic period (for the Old World) and the pre-Formative period (for the Americas). These dates should not to be understood as the first use of these materials, instead they refer to the oldest dates currently determined by either direct or indirect archeological evidence. Several of these dates are likely to be modified back in time by future excavations and finds
The Origin and Use of Cannabis in Eastern Asia
HuI-LIN LI
ECONOMIC BOTANY 28: 293-301. July-September, 1974.
DOI:10.1007/BF02861426
Cannabis sativa is one of man's oldest cultivated plants. Botanically it is distinct
from all other plants and readily recognized. Yet among individual plants it is
extremely variable. It now grows spontaneously in great abundance and ubiquity.
While most botanists consider the plant monotypic, some regard it as consisting of more than one species and a number of varieties, and so propose several different systems of classification. The systematics of this plant still awaits classification by further botanical studies. Cannabis is generally believed to be an Asiatic plant. There is no concerted agreement among botanists as to where the plant originally grew wild and where its cultivation first began. Estimates range within the wide span of temperate Asia from the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea through western and central Asia to eastern Asia. There is no easy way to distinguish between wild and spontaneous or adventitious, and semi-cultivated or cultivated plants. Therefore, much remains to be done in determining the geographical origin of the plant. These difficulties in classification and origin arise from the long and close association of Cannabis with man. Man has caused its extreme variations and wide dispersion. It will no longer suffice to study the plant itself alone. The influence of man must be considered side by side with the botanical facts in order to unveil the complex nature of this plant.ature of this plant.
The origins of cannabis smoking: Chemical residue evidence from the first millennium BCE in the Pamirs
Meng Ren, Zihua Tang, Xinhua Wu, Robert Spengler, Hongen Jiang, Yimin Yang, and Nicole Boivin
Science Advances 12 Jun 2019:
Vol. 5, no. 6, eaaw1391
DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aaw1391
Cannabis is one of the oldest cultivated plants in East Asia, grown for grain and fiber as well as for recreational,
medical, and ritual purposes. It is one of the most widely used psychoactive drugs in the world today, but little is
known about its early psychoactive use or when plants under cultivation evolved the phenotypical trait of
increased specialized compound production. The archaeological evidence for ritualized consumption of cannabis
is limited and contentious. Here, we present some of the earliest directly dated and scientifically verified evidence
for ritual cannabis smoking. This phytochemical analysis indicates that cannabis plants were burned in wooden
braziers during mortuary ceremonies at the Jirzankal Cemetery (ca. 500 BCE) in the eastern Pamirs region. This
suggests cannabis was smoked as part of ritual and/or religious activities in western China by at least 2500 years
ago and that the cannabis plants produced high levels of psychoactive compounds.
*The Pharmacohistory of Cannabis Sativa
Raphael Mechoulam
In book: Cannabinoids as Therapeutic Agents June 2019
DOI: 10.1201/9780429260667-1
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...annabis_Sativa
Cannabis sativa L. was one of the first plants to be used by man for fiber, food, medicine, and in social and religious rituals. Several names for cannabis were used, mostly associated with the term azallu. The Scythians were a tribe of violent warriors who ruled the Crimea and, at different times, parts of southern Russia, the Balkans, Anatolia, and the Middle East around 700 B.C. The Middle Ages in Europe stayed their course, as regarded medical and not-somedical use of cannabis, till the 19th century. Cannabis was part of the religious lore of the Aryans, a nomad tribe, which invaded India from the north circa 2000 B.C. The Indians had a much better understanding of cannabis than the Europeans. In various parts of India cannabis was used for a large number of diseases and to improve the physical and mental states of the user. The use in leprosy in China deserves further investigation.
The Religious and Medicinal Uses of Cannabisin China, India and Tibet.
Touw, M.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 13(1), 23–34.(1981).
doi:10.1080/02791072.1981.10471447
The earliest trace of cannabis use is an archaeological find of hemp textile in China dating fro m 4000 B.C. (Li & Lin 1974 ). Hemp thread and rope fro m 3000 B.C. have also been found in Chinese-occupied Turkestan (Fisher 19 75 ). The Rh-Ya (50 0 B.C., but pointing back many centuries earlier) mention s its use for fiber (Bouquet 1950), as do the Shih-Ching (l Oth-7th centuries B.C.), the Li-Chi (l 00 B.C.) an d the Chou Li (c. 200 H.C.) (Li & Lin 1974). A grain crop was obtained fro m the achene as well, according to the latter three classics ( Li & Lin 1974 ), though the earliest archaeological evidence of this use found to date is fro m the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.). Cannabis grain was not merely an auxiliary crop, for in ancient times it was counted as one of t he "five grains," together with rice, barley, millet and soy beans (Li 197 5). To this day a large seeded variety of hemp grows in the far northeast of China, which may well be a relict of its use for grain. Alt ho ugh cannabis ceased to be an important food in China just before the beginning of the Christian era due to the introduction of new crops (Keng 1974), it is still a source of cooking oil and grain in parts of Nepal.
‘Tis in our nature: taking the human-cannabis relationship seriously in health science and public policy.
Aggarwal, S. K.
Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4. (2013).
doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00006
To find clearheaded scientific perspective on cannabis use through the prevailing thick smokescreen requires recognizing just what sort of smoke obscures our better understanding. In the United States, in large part, the smokescreen is made up of culture war-charged political rhetoric and obstructionism from those in positions of authority setting up a prejudicial ideological framing for cannabis use. National leaders throughout the twentieth century have taken opportunities afforded by high office or its pursuit to publicly opine on the dangers of cannabis, such as when then-Presidential candidate Ronald Reagan famously stated in 1980 that “leading medical researchers are coming to the conclusion that marijuana, pot, grass, whatever you want to call it, is probably the most dangerous drug in the United States and we haven’t begun to find out all of the ill-effects. But they are permanent ill-effects. The loss of memory, for example Grass (1999).” Not only is such rhetoric overly simplistic, it also obscures and distorts pre-existing facts. In this particular case, Reagan’s statement obscures the fact that the American Medical Association testified in 1937 on record to Congress that, after nearly 100 years of professional experience in Western medical practice with over 2000 prescribable marketed cannabis preparations (Antique Cannabis Museum, 2012), practitioners found that cannabis had an irreplaceable therapeutic role as an aid in the remembering of old and long-forgotten memories in psychotherapy patients (U.S. Congress, 1937). When in office, Reagan’s first drug czar, Carlton Turner, blamed cannabis use for young people’s involvement in “anti-military, anti-nuclear power, anti-big business, anti-authority demonstrations” (Schlosser, 1997), all dissenting positions toward government initiatives. Such clear scapegoating rhetoric has roots in the government’s racialized Reefer Madness campaign of the 1930s which linked cannabis use in Blacks, Latinos, jazz musicians, and juvenile delinquents to racial miscegenation and homicidal mania
Upper Palaeolithic fibre technology: interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Adovasio, J. M., Soffer, O., & Klíma, B.
Antiquity, 70(269), 526–534.(1996).
doi:10.1017/s0003598x0008368x
The later Palaeolithic sites of Moravia, the region of the Czech Republic west of Prague and north of Vienna, continue to provide remarkable new materials. To the art mobilier for which Dolni V6stonice and Pavlov have been celebrated, there has recently been added the technologies of groundstone and ceramics - and now woven materials, interlaced basketry or textiles, again of a kind one expects only from a quite later era.
The Question of Cannabis: Cannabis Bibliography
Written by United Nations. Commission on Narcotic Drugs 1965
https://books.google.es/books?id=xXr...page&q&f=false
1860 article BIB
If any articles fit into more than one subject I will just post it in both, in this case I will put it in Classification/Taxonomy but if people also think it should go in others I can do that, I have maybe 1,000+ papers to sort and categorize by subject so I am trying to keep it easy for my self. If anyone has suggestions for additional subjects on any specific paper please tell me. ANY NEWLY ADDED PAPER I WILL POST THE TITLE IN RED FOR AT LEAST 3 MONTHS TO MAKE IT EASIER TO SEE WHAT HAS RECENTLY BEEN ADDED TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY
I am sure I, and you, will find additional subjects, please suggest any subjects that should be added, try and include a DOI number or if no DOI a http:// link to download any paper, I will then post in the right subject posted in alphabetical order .
With a DOI number you can get any science paper by going to https://sci-hub.se/ and pasting in the DOI number.
If the link above does not work type sci-hub into google and use the https://sci-hub.se/ link that pops up, it works, then paste in the DOI. A few papers do not have a working DOI, I tried to find a http:// link for those papers. Recently some journals block the DOI of newly published papers for the first year or two, in that case I try to find a http:// that has the Pdf, if not I will publish what info I have and post FIND Pdf on the bottom of the abstract. If anyone sees a DOI or http:// that does not yield a Pdf please let me know and send me a link to the actual Pdf so I can post it for all.
I also welcome discussion of any paper posted, good or bad, share what you think so others can expand their understanding of Cannabis.
I will post a * before the title of the top 5-10 papers in each subject, these are must reads if you have interest in that Cannabis subject.
I will try and add all of the abstracts to all of the articles I can.
If anyone finds a http link or Doi number that does not work, please tell me so I can attempt to fix it.
If anyone has suggestions for additional subjects for any specific paper to be posted in, please tell me, I will add the paper to both subjects.
The only real disadvantage of this way of displaying the Biblography is if people want to see just the latest additions to this Biblography, so maybe I should first list new additions to the
CANNABIS BIBLIOGRAPHY SORTED AND ALPHABETIZED BY SUBJECT with their titles in red for a few months then make it black like the rest? I will do that.
I hate posting abstracts of papers without a free Pdf or DOI link to download the paper, but I do anyway just in case folks see a paper they are want now and are willing to pay for a new paper I do not have a free link for yet. If you know a link for the missing Pdf PM me so I can add it.
IC Archaeology/History....................... ................PAGE 1, POST #1
IC Breeding Cannabis...................... .....................PAGE 1, POST #3
IC Cannabinoids.................. .............................. ..PAGE 1, POST #8
IC Cannabinoid Receptors...,,,,.............. ..............PAGE 1, POST #9
IC Cannabis Analysis...................... ........................PAGE 1, POST #11
IC Cannabis Art........................... ..........................PAGE 1, POST #12
IC Cannabis Botany........................ .......................PAGE 1, POST #12
IC Cannabis Collectables.................. ......................PAGE 1, POST #12
IC Cannabis Plant Growth Hormones...................... .PAGE 1, POST #12
IC Cannabis R&D......................... .. ........................ PAGE 1, POST #12
IC Cannabis Seeds......................... .........................PAGE 1, POST #13
IC Cannabis Seed Oil........................... ....................PAGE 1, POST #13
IC Classification/Taxonomy...................... ................PAGE 1, POST #13
IC DNA.............................. .............................. .......PAGE 1, POST #14
IC Drug Cannabis...................... .............................. .PAGE 1, POST #16
IC Ethnobotany................... .............................. .......PAGE 1, POST #16
IC Flavonoids.................... .............................. .....PAGE 1, POST #16
IC Hemp/Cannabis Cultivation................... ............PAGE 1, POST #17
IC Hemp Processing.............................. ................PAGE 1, POST #18
IC Interviews Cannabis People........................ ......PAGE 1, POST #19
IC In Vitro......................... .............................. ......PAGE 1, POST #19
IC Legal......................... .............................. ...........PAGE 1, POST #19
IC Medical Cannabis/Endocannabinoids Part 1 A-D......PAGE 1, POST #20
IC Medical Cannabis/Endocannabinoids Part 2 E-Z......PAGE 1, POST #21
IC Pest and Disease....................... .......................PAGE 2, POST 22
IC Terpenes .............................. ..........................PAGE 2, POST 24
IC Trichomes .............................. .........................PAGE 2, POST 26
I have posted maybe 2000+ articles, almost organized into 27 categories, all on 2 pages of this post Pg1 & Pg 2
IC Archaeology/History
*A fragrant grave - revealing the mummified remains of a 17th-century bishop
Per Lagerås, National Historical Museums, Sweden
Current World Archaeology · March 2016 Issue 76
https://www.world-archaeology.com/fe...entury-bishop/
Bishop Peder Winstrup died in December 1679, aged 74, and was buried beneath Lund Cathedral. When, in 2014, it was decided that his coffin should be removed from the crypt, a team of archaeologists took the opportunity to look inside. What they discovered surprised everyone: his clothes, his skin, and his hair were so perfectly preserved that he looked almost as if he were sleeping rather than having been dead for more than three centuries. But another shock awaited the team: the bishop was not alone. Secreted at his feet was the tiny body of a human foetus, probably a still-born baby. Winstrup and the baby lay on a bed of well-preserved plants, its pillows stuffed with herbs. Could these be the reason the remains looked so fresh? An interdisciplinary research team, directed by Per Karsten, Historical Museum at Lund University, was rapidly assembled to investigate.
"ICE MAIDEN"
A mummy unearthed from the pastures of heaven
January 1994 National geographic 186(4):80-103
N. Polosmak
https://nationalgeographicbackissues.. .ober-1994.html
https://siberiantimes.com/science/ca...ique-mri-scan/
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transc...7siberian.html
American Weed: A History of Cannabis Cultivation in the United States
Nick Johnson
Introduction: Marijuana Menaces the Midway
EchoGéo 48(48) July 2019
DOI: 10.4000/echogeo.17650
//www.researchgate.net/publication/334452841_American_Weed_A_Hist ory_of_Cannabis_Cultivation_in _the_United_States
In the summer of 1929, Reefer Madness descended upon the Windy City. In late April, the Illinois house of representatives had passed a bill to ban “loco-weed,” a plant whose “Mexican form” was “marijuana,” a “narcotic” (Brown, 1929a)1 Two months later, as the bill languished in the senate, the Chicago Tribune ran an article and accompanying backpage photo on marijuana, attempting to spur the legislature into action. The paper claimed that the “dangerous, habit forming drug” had been “introduced a dozen years ago or so by Mexican laborers” and was now spreading across the city, ensnaring “thousands of workingmen,” “youths and girls,” as well as “school children.” (Chicago Tribune, 1929a). In the photo, two dark-skinned men with sun hats are crouched next to some cannabis plants “in the southern part of the city,” “gathering marijuana” while the “legislature delays action” (Chicago Tribune, 1929b; Falck, 2010, p. 80-81). The newspaper clearly intended the photo to be visual proof of marijuana’s “Mexican” origins, as well as a swipe at the legislature for stalling while devious foreigners harvested a dangerous drug. The accompanying article claimed that cannabis “seeds” were “brought by Mexicans” and “planted in tiny patches near the box car homes of the laborers.” But if Mexicans were blamed for the drug’s introduction, the rest of the article made clear that they could hardly be held responsible for its spread. In addition to naming two “alleged sellers of marijuana cigarets” as “Harry Johnson” and “Richard Drake,” the report also claimed that marijuana smoking was widespread “in South Chicago, in Blue Island, in Kensington, and other outlying districts, and it can be purchased in restaurants, drug stores, and poolrooms” – all of which were not exclusively the domain of Mexicans (Chicago Tribune, 1929a). Nature, too, helped the “loco weed”
An Archaeological and Historical Account of Cannabis in China
Hui-Lin Li
October 1973 Economic Botany 28(4):437-448
DOI: 10.1007/BF02862859
From a historical vantage, Cannabis has been found in China since Neolithic times, about 6,000 years ago, with a continuous record of cultivation down to the present. This record stands unique in comparison to those of other regions in Asia, and it strongly indicates the plant to be indigenous. New archeological finds in recent years considerably substantiate and extend its early history. The very scattered references in historical literature are in need of organization and analysis. These records are assembled here, followed by some notes on the possible routes of early diffusion of the plant in relation to its usage.
Ancient Cannabis Burial Shroud in a Central Eurasian Cemetery
HONGEN JIANG, LONG WANG, MARK D. MERLIN, ROBERT C. CLARKE,
YAN PAN, YONG ZHANG, GUOQIANG XIAO, AND XIAOLIAN DING
Economic Botany, Vol 70(X), 2016, 9 pp.
DOI: 10.1007/s12231-016-9351-1
An extraordinary cache of ancient, well-preserved Cannabis plant remains was recently discovered in a tomb in the Jiayi cemetery of Turpan, NW China. Radiometric dating of this tomb and the archeobotanical remains it contained indicate that they are approximately 2800–2400 years old. Both morphological and anatomical features support the identification of the plant remains as Cannabis. Research discussed in this paper describes 13 nearly whole plants of Cannabis that appear to have been locally produced and purposefully arranged and used as a burial shroud which was placed upon a male corpse. This unique discovery provides new insight into the ritualistic use of Cannabis in prehistoric Central Eurasia. Furthermore, the fragmented infructescences of Cannabis discovered in other tombs of the Jiayi cemetery, together with similar Cannabis remains recovered from coeval tombs in the ancient Turpan cemetery along with those found in the Altai Mountains region, reveal that Cannabis was used by the local Central Eurasian people for ritual and/or medicinal purposes in the first millennium before the Christian era.
Ancient usage of cannabis
Aaron Clauset, Kollen Post
Science 364(6445):1043.8-1044 June 2019
DOI: 10.1126/science.364.6445.1043-h
The cultivation of cannabis extends back into distant prehistory. During excavations at a cemetery on the Pamir Plateau on the border of China and Tajikistan, Ren et al. found cannabinoid oils in wooden braziers. The finding is consistent with psychoactive cannabis use in burial rituals as early as 500 BCE. The cannabis featured high levels of THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)—higher than in wild varieties of the plant. Artifacts recovered from the burials as well as isotopic evidence from human remains suggest a high degree of cultural and economic exchange with neighboring peoples. Thus, people in the region may have been engaged in the hybridization of disparate populations of cannabis plants for the purpose of increasing their potency.
*A new insight into Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai Tombs, Xinjiang, China
Hong-En Jiang, Xiao Li, You-Xing Zhao, David K.Ferguson, Francis Hueber, Subir Bera, Yu-Fei Wang, Liang-Cheng Zhao, Chang-Jiang Liu, Cheng-Sen Li
Journal of Ethnopharmacology Volume 108, Issue 3, 6 December 2006, Pages 414-422
doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034
A cache of shoots, leaves and fruits dated by 14C at 2500 years B.P. were unearthed in the Yanghai Tombs, Turpan District in Xinjiang, China. By comparing the morphological and anatomical characteristics of the plant remains found in the tomb and specimens of modern plants, it is shown that the remains belong toCannabis. Based on the shamanistic background of the deceased man and ancient customs, it is assumed that the Cannabis was utilized for ritual/medicinal purposes.
A PHYSIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE PRINCIPLE FROM CANNABIS SATIVA (MARIHUANA)
HAAGEN-SMIT, A. J., WAWRA, C. Z., KOEPFLI, J. B., ALLES, G. A., FEIGEN, G. A., & PRATER, A. N.
Science, 91(2373), 602–603. (1940).
doi:10.1126/science.91.2373.602
While it has long been known that the physiological activity of Cannabis sativa (marihuana or hashish) is associated with its contained resins, no physiologically active crystalline material has heretofore been isolated.
We report in this note the isolation of such a substance. The hydrocarbon nonacosane and an oily product termed canabinol were first isolated by Wood, Spivey and Easterfie1d In 1938 Bergel, Todd and Work reported the preparation of a crystallilie p-nitro benzoate of cannabinol which could be used to separate the cannabinol from the oil by chromatographic adsorption methods. Recently an oily product which was named cannabidiol was isolated by Adams, Hunt and Clark. None of these well-defined products has exhibited the characteristic physiological activities that are shown by the crude drug though canabinol was found to be quite toxic. Reviews of the earlier work on the chemistry of Cannabis have been published by Walton and by Blatt.
Work on the separation of physiologically active fractions from alcoholic extracts of Cannabis sativa has been in progress for the past year in our laboratories. The extracts of Minnesota wild hemp used for the work were generously supplied by the Narcotics Laboratory, United States Treasury Department, and we are indebted to Nessrs. H. J. Anslinger and H. J. Wollner for their collaboration which made this work possible. The alcohol extract of the crude drug was diluted with water to yield a seventy per cent, alcohol solution, and this vas partitioned into petroleum ether. Salt forming compounds were extracted and then colored substances were largely removed by adsorption on zinc carbonate. The resultant resinous material was fractionally precipitated from methanol with water and there was obtained a physiologically active fraction of about one twentieth the weight of the crude resin material. This purified product 1~as fractionally distilled under 0.005 mm pressure, with the most active fraction distilling at 128O-135O C. This fraction is a red-colored oil which shows typical activity in dogs following an oral dose of 1.0 mg per kg. By cooling a solution of this oil in a methanol-acetic acid mixture, some crystalline material was obtained. This was then recrystallized several times from methanol to yield colorless needles melting at 128O-129O C.
Archaeological Evidence for the Tradition of Psychoactive Plant Use in the Old World.
Merlin, M. D.
Economic Botany, 57(3), 295–323. (2003).
doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0295:aeftto]2.0.co;2
We live in an age when a divine vision is dismissed as an hallucination, and desire to experience a direct communication with god is often interpreted as a sign of mental illness. Nevertheless, some scholars and scientists assert that such visions and communications are fundamentally derived from an ancient and ongoing cultural tradition. The hypothesis presented here suggests that humans have a very ancient tradition involving the use of mind-altering experiences to produce profound, more or less spiritual and cultural understanding. Much evidence for the early use of Cannabis for fiber, food, medicine, ceremony and recreation can be gleaned from ancient written records (Fig. 12, 13, 14, and 15). However, the archae ological record for early use of Cannabis is much less extensive. Nevertheless, the macrofossil, pollen, and indirect material evidence from prehistory are substantial.
Archaeobotanical evidence of the use of medicinal cannabis in a secular context unearthed from south China
Yunjun Bai , Ming Jiang , Tao Xie , Chao Jiang , Man Gu , Xinying Zhou , Xue Yan , Yuan Yuan , Luqi Huang
J Ethnopharmacol. 2021 Jul 15;275:114114.
doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114114
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...om_South_China
Ethnopharmacological relevance: As one of the first plants used by ancient people, cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of years. The long history of medicinal cannabis use contrasts with the paucity of archaeobotanical records. Moreover, physical evidence of medicinal cannabis use in a secular context is much rarer than evidence of medicinal cannabis use in religious or ritual activities, which impedes our understanding of the history of medicinal cannabis use.
Aim of the study: This study aims to provide archaeobotanical evidence of medicinal cannabis use and analyse the specific medicinal usage of cannabis in a secular context in ancient times.
Materials and methods: Plant remains were collected from the Laoguanshan Cemetery of the Han Dynasty in Chengdu, South China, with the archaeological flotation process and were identified based on morphological and anatomical characteristics. The examination of the medicinal significance of the remains relied on the investigation of the documentation on unearthed medical bamboo slips, the diseases of the tomb occupants, the cemetery's cultural background and Chinese historical records.
Results: The botanical remains were accurately identified as cannabis. More than 120 thousand fruits were found, which represents the largest amount of cannabis fruit remains that have been statistically analysed from any cemetery in the world thus far. The cannabis fruits are suspected to have been used for medical purposes in a secular context and were most likely used to stop severe bleeding of the uterus and treat lumbago and/or arthralgia.
Conclusions: The cannabis fruit remains reported here likely represent the first physical evidence of medicinal cannabis use for the treatment of metrorrhagia, severe lumbago, and/or arthralgia. This study emphasizes the importance of the evidence of the diseases suffered by the occupants of the tomb in determining the medicinal use of cannabis in a secular context and contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the ancient history of medicinal cannabis.
Breaking the begging bowl: morals, drugs, and madness in the fate of the Muslim faqīr.
Green, N.
South Asian History and Culture, 5(2), 226–245.(2014).
doi:10.1080/19472498.2014.883761
This article follows a set of developments that transformed the meaning and value of begging as a religious pursuit in colonial India. Focusing on the Muslim faqīrs, the article argues that missionaries, colonial officials, and physicians joined together in a moral and then medical critique of the faqīrs as venerated idlers and sanctified drug users. The moral dimensions of the critique were then taken up by Muslim and Hindu reformists. Positioned at the centre of an immoral nexus, for their British critics the faqīrs were key to the spread of drug abuse and in turn insanity among their followers. For Indian reformists and then nationalists, this nexus also connected the faqīrs to the moral, economic, and physical weakening of the nation. In both of these critical visions, the begging mendicant was seen as an actively harmful figure whose misdeeds ranged from promoting the inversed morality of an anti-work ethic to peddling the evils of drug addiction and rousing the riotous masses on holy days. By drawing on a range of missionary, medical and Muslim reformist texts, the article shows how from around 1870 the discourses of Islamic reform and Indian nationalism gradually joined forces with the medical and moral discipline of empire such that by the 1920s the faqīrs had gained an assembly of powerful enemies. In this way, the colonial period is seen as a crucial period of transition in the meanings of begging and drug use that would leave the venerated mendicants of former times disempowered in post-colonial South Asia.
Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years.
Pertwee, R. G.
British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. (2009).
doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0706406
Research into the pharmacology of individual cannabinoids that began in the 1940s, several decades after the presence of a cannabinoid was first detected in cannabis, is concisely reviewed. Also described is how this pharmacological research led to the discovery of cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors and of endogenous ligands for these receptors, to the development of CB1- and CB2-selective agonists and antagonists and to the realization that the endogenous cannabinoid systemhas significant roles in both health and disease, and that drugs which mimic, augment or block the actions of endogenously released cannabinoids must have important therapeutic applications. Some goals for future research are identified.
Cannabinoid research in the 2010s
Mauro Maccarrone and Steve PH Alexander
bph_1930 2409..2410
DOI:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.01930.x
Cannabis sativa is possibly the plant with the longest history of cultivation by man (Russo, 2007). It has long been exploited for its fibre; as a biomass converter, it has exceptional utility. For most people, however, there is the association of cannabis with ‘recreational drugs’, which has lead to the profusion of names associated with the plant and extracts thereof (marijuana,hashish, bhang, weed, grass, etc.). The ‘modern’ scientific era of cannabis research was prompted by the discovery of the major psychoactive ingredient in cannabis extracts (Gaoni and Mechoulam, 1964). This was, of course, D9-tetrahydrocannabinol or THC. Raphael Mechoulam has numerous publications, filled with seminal observations, including the identification of the two ‘best’ candidates for endogenous cannabinoid molecules: anandamide (Devane et al., 1992) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (Mechoulam et al., 1995). He has become something of an icon in the cannabis field, with this issue of BJP containing a series of original articles prompted by a symposium held in Jerusalem in November 2010 to celebrate his 80th birthday. The first issue, entitled ‘Cannabinoids in Biology and Medicine’, containing primarily reviews, was published in August 2011 (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/...sue-7/issuetoc). Current research incannabinoid-related areas is vibrant, with the added focus of TRPV1 ion channels, PPAR nuclear receptors and the ‘orphan’ G-protein coupled receptors, GPR18, GPR55 and GPR119, as molecular targets of cannabinoids and cannabinoid-like molecules. Furthermore, the identification of endogenous agonists at cannabinoid receptors which lead to the demonstration of multiple routes for synthesis and transformation of these endocannabinoids has added to the molecular targets available for potential exploitation.
Cannabis
Chris S Duvall
February 2015
Publisher: Botanical Series, Reaktion Books, London
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...65399_Cannabis
Cannabis, one of humanity’s first domesticated plants, has been utilized for spiritual, therapeutic, recreational, and even punitive reasons for thousands of years. Humans have excellent practical knowledge of Cannabis uses, yet limited understanding of its sociocultural consequences, past or present due to its widespread prohibition. In Cannabis, Chris Duvall explores the cultural history and geography of humanity’s most widely distributed crop, which supplies both hemp and marijuana. This book provides a global view of the plant, with coverage of little-studied regions including Africa and Australia. This book focuses on the plant’s currently most valuable product, the psychoactive drug marijuana. Cannabis also covers the history of hemp and its use as a fiber source for ropes and textiles; as a source of edible hempseeds; and as a source of industrial oil for paints and fuel. This book does not advocate either the prohibition or legalisation of the drug but challenges received wisdom on both sides of the debate. Cannabis explores and analyses a wide range of sources to provide a better understanding of its current prohibition, as well as of the diversity of human–Cannabis relationships across the globe. This, the author argues, is necessary to redress the oversimplistic portrayals of marijuana and hemp that dominate discourse on the subject, and ultimately to improve how the crop is managed worldwide. This highly accessible, richly illustrated volume is an essential read given rapidly evolving debates about prohibition, and in light of changes in the legality of marijuana in Uruguay, some U.S. states, and other jurisdictions worldwide
Cannabis and Frankincense at the Judahite shrine of Arad
Eran Ariea , Baruch Rosenb and Dvory Namdarc
TEL AVIV Vol. 47, 2020, 5–28
DOI: 10.1080/03344355.2020.1732046
Two limestone monoliths, interpreted as altars, were found in the Judahite shrine at Tel Arad. Unidentified dark material preserved on their upper surfaces was submitted for organic residue analysis at two unrelated laboratories that used similar established extraction methods. On the smaller altar, residues of cannabinoids such as ?9 -teterahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) were detected, along with an assortment of terpenes and terpenoids, suggesting that cannabis inflorescences had been burnt on it. Organic residues attributed to animal dung were also found, suggesting that the cannabis resin had been mixed with dung to enable mild heating. The larger altar contained an assemblage of indicative triterpenes such as boswellic acid and norursatriene, which derives from frankincense. The additional presence of animal fat?in related compounds such as testosterone, androstene and cholesterol?suggests that resin was mixed with it to facilitate evaporation. These well-preserved residues shed new light on the use of 8th century Arad altars and on incense offerings in Judah during the Iron Age.
Cannabis and hemp in the Ottoman Empire
ERHAN AFYONCU
https://www.dailysabah.com/feature/2...ottoman-empire
Turkey is looking to revive cannabis cultivation in order to begin using it in industry. Though the Ottoman Empire had a huge hemp industry, the plant has not been cultivated in Anatolia for decades
In Turkish, the cannabis plant is also known as "kendir," which is also the name of the fiber made out of it. The fiber and seeds of the cannabis plant are used to make a variety of different products around the world. It is prohibited in many countries because of its miscellaneous use as a drug. However, industrial hemp is used in the production of many things, including fabric, yarn, naval materials, cosmetics, vehicle frames, soap and cellulose. It was commonly grown during the Ottoman era.
Cannabis and Medicinal Research History of Medical Cannabis in Sri Lanka
Weliange W S,
J Neurol Neurophysiol 2018, Volume 9
Conference: Cannabis and Medicinal Research, Japan
DOI: 10.4172/2155-9562-C9-085
Island of Sri Lanka was occupied by Homo sapiens since 40,000 years ago. They separated into Yaksha, Naga and Deva tribes. A Yaksha king called Ravana ruled Sri Lanka around 10,000 BC and established methods of medical practices. In 509 BC a team led by Indian prince Vijaya arrived and started agriculture civilization. In 341 AD King Buddadasa wrote a medical pharmacopeia; Sarartha Sangrahaya in which he medicinal values of Cannabis were described. Since then medical books described Cannabis as an important herbal ingredient. These books include Yogarnavaya and Prayagorathnavaliya (1232), Vaidyacintamani – wish-fulfilling gem of Medicine (1707), Glossary of Synonyms of Medicinal Plants (1798), Yogasekaraya (1894), Kolavidiya (1900), Es Veda Potha (Opthalmic treatments) (1908). Saraswathi Nigantuwa (1918), Sri Sarangadara Samhitha (1929), Chemistry and Pharmacology of Indian and Sri Lankan Medicinal Plants (1935), Sri Lankan Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia (1937), Senehe shathakam (1940), Thel beheth potha (book of Medicinal Oils) in 1954, Atheesara Chikithsawa (Diareal treatments) in 1962, Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants (1963), Purana Rahas thel beheth Potha (Ancient secretes of Medicinal Oils) in 1969, Desheeya Vaidya Sabdakoshaya (Dictionary of Indigenous Medicine) in 1970, Go Rathnaya (Treating Cows) in 1980, Desheeya Guli Kalka Sagaraya (Edible Medicines) in 1999. In 2015 Minister of Health, Nutrition & Indigenous Medicine Dr. Rajitha Dissanayake initiated promotion of Cannabis for Indigenous Medicine. In 2017 a comprehensive book about Cannabis was written by W.S. Weliange. Government interference is necessary to educate people about the overall importance of Cannabis for health, society and the Nature.
Cannabis and Tobacco in Precolonial and Colonial Africa
Chris S. Duvall
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History (2017)
10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.44
Cannabis and tobacco have longstanding roles in African societies. Despite botanical and pharmacological dissimilarities, it is worthwhile to consider tobacco and cannabis together because they have been for centuries the most commonly and widely smoked drug plants. Cannabis, the source of marijuana and hashish, was introduced to eastern Africa from southern Asia, and dispersed widely within Africa mostly after 1500. In sub-Saharan Africa, cannabis was taken into ethnobotanies that included pipe smoking, a practice invented in Africa; in Asia, it had been consumed orally. Smoking significantly changes the drug pharmacologically, and the African innovation of smoking cannabis initiated the now-global practice. Africans developed diverse cultures of cannabis use, including Central African practices that circulated widely in the Atlantic world via slave trading. Tobacco was introduced to Africa from the Americas in the late 1500s. It gained rapid, widespread popularity, and Africans developed distinctive modes of tobacco production and use. Primary sources on these plants are predominantly from European observers, which limits historical knowledge because Europeans strongly favored tobacco and were mostly ignorant or disdainful of African cannabis uses. Both plants have for centuries been important subsistence crops. Tobacco was traded across the continent beginning in the 1600s; cannabis was less valuable but widely exchanged by the same century, and probably earlier. Both plants became cash crops under colonial regimes. Tobacco helped sustain mercantilist and slave-trade economies, became a focus of colonial and postcolonial economic development efforts, and remains economically important. Cannabis was outlawed across most of the continent by 1920. Africans resisted its prohibition, and cannabis production remains economically significant despite its continued illegality.
Cannabis condemned: the proscription of Indian hemp.
Kendell, R.
Addiction, 98(2), 143–151.(2003).
doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00273.x
Aims To find out how cannabis came to be subject to international narcotics legislation. Method Examination of the records of the 1925 League of Nations’ Second Opium Conference, of the 1894 Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission and other contemporary documents. Findings Although cannabis (Indian hemp) was not on the agenda of the Second Opium Conference, a claim by the Egyptian delegation that it was as dangerous as opium, and should therefore be subject to the same international controls, was supported by several other countries. No formal evidence was produced and conference delegates had not been briefed about cannabis. The only objections came from Britain and other colonial powers. They did not dispute the claim that cannabis was comparable to opium, but they did want to avoid a commitment to eliminating its use in their Asian and African territories.
*Cannabis, Evolution and Ethnobotany
Robert C Clarke and Mark Merlin
University of California Press
https://magicgreenery.com/download/i...Merlin2013.pdf remove the s from https if needed
Cannabis is one of the world’s most useful plant groups. It has been a part of human culture for thousands of years beginning in
Eurasia, and today it is associated with people in almost all parts of the world. Although Cannabis is most often thought of as a
“drug plant,” its use for a huge number of other purposes including fiber, food, paper, medicine, and so on is almost
unparalleled, ranking it with the coconut palm and bamboos. Cannabis is truly a remarkable genus of multipurpose plants with
extensive and complicated histories. A fully comprehensive, documented history of Cannabis’s evolution and its widespread,
diverse use by humans has never been published. This book is an attempt to accomplish that task. The evolution of Cannabis and
the great variety of human-Cannabis relationships are presented here in greater depth than ever before. How this project
developed and progressed is an interesting story in itself.
The coauthors have worked earnestly over the past 15 years or more to produce this book; however, they began to focus their
scholarly and scientific interests on Cannabis well before their collaboration started in 1996. Both Mark Merlin and Robert
Clarke first initiated their research on Cannabis while enrolled in undergraduate programs in the University of California system
at their respective campuses decades ago. Their independent and joint field work involving the genus necessitated extensive
travel across several continents to countless libraries and museums, complemented by innumerable interviews in regions where
Cannabis has either ancient roots or only a relatively modern history of cultivation and use. This volume represents the better
part of two scholarly careers spent following the historic trail of both the evolutionary biology and ethnobotanical heritage of
Cannabis.
Cannabis in Ancient Central Eurasian Burials
Mark D. Merlin and Robert C. Clarke
In ANCIENT PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Edited by Scott M. Fitzpatrick
https://d2r6h7ytneza1l.cloudfront.ne.. .ck_Excerpt.pdf
Over the vast time span within which humans have known and used Cannabis for many purposes, it has been heralded as one of our supreme resources and cursed as one of our utmost burdens. Today the consumption of mind-altering Cannabis plant material for recreational or medicinal reasons is widely known. However, the original and early use of psychoactive Cannabis may have been principally for ritualistic religious purposes (for a comprehensive discussion of the evolutionary biology and ethnobotanical history of the genus Cannabis, see Clarke and Merlin 2013; also see Duvall 2015; Small 2015). The natural origin area of Cannabis was most likely the central steppe and forest zones of Eurasia. Early modern humans probably first encountered and utilized one or more of the products of this annual, herbaceous genus in its native biogeographical range. Remarkable early twentiethand twenty-first-century discoveries of archaeobotanical remains in ancient burials confirm the nonfood and nonfiber use of Cannabis in Central Eurasia at least by the first millennium BCE. In these cases, Cannabis appears to have been used for mind-altering ceremonial, purification, or therapeutic purposes. This chapter focuses on the presence and putative uses of psychoactive Cannabis in ancient burials that are well over two thousand years old and found in southeastern Russia and western China.
Cannabis in Asia: its center of origin and early cultivation, based on a synthesis of subfossil pollen and archaeobotanical studies
John M. McPartland,· William Hegman ,· Tengwen Long
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany
doi:10.1007/s00334-019-00731-8
Biogeographers assign the Cannabis centre of origin to “Central Asia”, mostly based on wild-type plant distribution data. We sought greater precision by adding new data: 155 fossil pollen studies (FPSs) in Asia. Many FPSs assign pollen of either Cannabis or Humulus (C –H ) to collective names (e.g. Cannabis/Humulus or Cannabaceae). To dissect these aggregate data,
we used ecological proxies. C –H pollen in a steppe assemblage (with Poaceae, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae) was identified as wild-type Cannabis. C –H pollen in a forest assemblage (Alnus, Salix, Quercus, Robinia , Juglans) was identified as Humulus . C –H pollen curves that upsurged alongside crop pollen were identified as cultivated hemp. Subfossil seeds (fruits) at archaeological sites also served as evidence of cultivation. All sites were mapped using geographic information system software. The oldest C –H pollen consistent with Cannabis dated to 19.6 ago (Ma), in northwestern China. However, Cannabis and Humulus diverged 27.8 Ma, estimated by a molecular clock analysis. We bridged the temporal gap between the divergence date and the oldest pollen by mapping the earliest appearance of Artemisia . These data converge on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, which we deduce as the Cannabis centre of origin, in the general vicinity of Qinghai Lake. This co-localizes with the first steppe community that evolved in Asia. From there, Cannabis first dispersed west (Europe by 6 Ma) then east (eastern
China by 1.2 Ma). Cannabis pollen in India appeared by 32.6 thousand years (ka) ago. The earliest archaeological evidence was found in Japan, 10,000 bce , followed by China.
[FONT=PÊˇø◊îúY¿¥*†°∂‡XËÊˇø0IπY¥ü]Cannabis in Form Information on Cannabis[/FONT]
https://www.academia.edu/27477304/Cannabis_in_Form_Information_o n_Cannabis?auto=download&email _work_card=download-paper
General Information on Cannabis 150 Pg.
Cannabis Indica in 19th-Century Psychiatry.
CARLSON, E. T.
American Journal of Psychiatry, 131(9), 1004–1007. (1974).
doi:10.1176/ajp.131.9.1004
The author presents a stuck ofthe history and usage of cannabis indicus (the 19th-century pharmacological term referring to the plant we today call cannabis sativa indica). His review ofthe drug’s physiological and psychological effects reveals that most ofthe effects reported in the 1960s were known to writers ofthe 19th century, when the drug was alternate/v considered a curefor and a cause ofinsanity.
Cannabis in Eurasia: origin of human use and Bronze Age trans-continental connections
Tengwen Long, Mayke Wagner, Dieter Demske, Pavel E. Tarasov
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany · June 2016
DOI: 10.1007/s00334-016-0579-6
A systematic review of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental records of cannabis (fibres, pollen, achenes and imprints of achenes) reveals its complex history in Eurasia. A multiregional origin of human use of the plant is proposed, considering the more or less contemporaneous appearance of cannabis records in two distal parts (Europe and East Asia) of the continent. A marked increase in cannabis achene records from East Asia between ca. 5,000 and 4,000 cal bp might be associated with the establishment of a trans-Eurasian exchange/migration network through the steppe zone, influenced by the more intensive exploitation of cannabis achenes popular in Eastern Europe pastoralist communities. The role of the Hexi Corridor region as a hub for an East Asian spread of domesticated plants, animals and cultural elements originally from Southwest Asia and Europe is highlighted. More systematic, interdisciplinary and well-dated data, especially from South Russia and Central Asia, are necessary to address the unresolved issues in understanding the complex history of human cannabis utilisation.
Cannabis in India: Ancient lore and modern medicine
Ethan Budd Russo
In book: Cannabinoids as Therapeutics March 2006
DOI: 10.1007/3-7643-7358-X_1
India is a land steeped in faith and mysticism. Ayurveda, combining the Sanskrit words for life and knowledge, is a system of medicine intertwined inextricably with these traits. That a core of belief combined with empirical experimentation could produce a viable medical regimen still widely practiced after well over 3000 years is astounding to Western physicians. Cannabis was similarly bound to faith and mysticism in India in the past, in the Hindu and Islamic traditions, as well as in numerous other minority religions [1]. Merlin recently explained it well [2], “with the powerful tools of modern science and human imagination, our understanding of our deep-rooted desire to experience ecstasy in the original sense of the word (to break the mind free from the body and communicate with the ‘gods’ or the ancestors) will become clear with time”. This chapter will seek to examine the medical claims for cannabis of the past, and place them in a contemporary light given current pharmacological knowledge. Ayurveda is based on a conceptual medical system that seeks to balance three functional elements, called doshas, that the human body is composed of, and are commonly represented as Vata or Vayu (ether or air), Pitta (fire and water) and Kapha (phlegm or water and earth). Nadkarni [3] has rejected these simple relationships in favor of more abstract assignations
Cannabis is indigenous to Europe and cultivation began during the Copper or Bronze age: a probabilistic synthesis of fossil pollen studies
John M. McPartland, · Geoffrey W. Guy · William Hegman
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany (2018) 27:635–648
doi:10.1007/s00334-018-0678-7
Conventional wisdom states Cannabis sativa originated in Asia and its dispersal to Europe depended upon human transport. Various Neolithic or Bronze age groups have been named as pioneer cultivators. These theses were tested by examining fossil pollen studies (FPSs), obtained from the European Pollen Database. Many FPSs report Cannabis or Humulus (C /H ) with collective names (e.g. Cannabis /Humulus or Cannabaceae). To dissect these aggregate data, we used ecological proxies to differentiate C /H pollen, as follows: unknown C /H pollen that appeared in a pollen assemblage suggestive of steppe (Poaceae, Artemisia , Chenopodiaceae) we interpreted as wild-type Cannabis. C /H pollen in a mesophytic forest assemblage (Alnus, Salix, Populus ) we interpreted as Humulus. C /H pollen curves that upsurged and appeared de novo alongside crop pollen grains we interpreted as cultivated hemp. FPSs were mapped and compared to the territories of archaeological cultures. We analysed 479 FPSs from the Holocene/Late Glacial, plus 36 FPSs from older strata. The results showed C /H pollen consistent with wild-type C. sativa in steppe and dry tundra landscapes throughout Europe during the early Holocene, Late Glacial, and previous glaciations. During the warm and wet Holocene Climactic Optimum, forests replaced steppe, and Humulus dominated. Cannabis retreated to steppe refugia. C /H pollen consistent with cultivated hemp first appeared in the Pontic-Caspian steppe refugium. GIS mapping linked cultivation with the Copper age Varna/Gumelni?a culture, and the Bronze age Yamnaya and Terramara cultures. An Iron age steppe culture, the Scythians, likely introduced hemp cultivation to Celtic and Proto-Slavic cultures.
Cannabis Prohibition in Egypt, 1880–1939: From Local Ban to League of Nations Diplomacy
Liat Kozma
Middle Eastern Studies (2011) Vol. 47, No. 3, 443–460,
DOI: 10.1080/00263206.2011.553890
German criminologist Sebastian Scheer recently challenged the North American focus of drug policy research. Most US and non-US scholarship, he argued, explains drug prohibition, and especially cannabis prohibition, in terms of American domestic policy and the 1937 American Marihuana Tax Act. The history of international cannabis prohibition is often narrated as an extension of the prohibition era, of American relations with its southern neighbours and with its Mexican immigrants. International prohibition, however, dates back to 1925 and to the League of Nations’ Second Opium Convention, in which the US did not play a leading role at all. The role of Italy, South Africa, Egypt and Turkey in international cannabis prohibition, he claimed, is largely overlooked.1 Focusing on Egypt, this article thus fills a gap in drug policy literature. James Mills’ Cannabis Britanica confronted the North American bias of cannabis scholarship by focusing on the Indian case. In one of his chapters, and then in a more recent article, Mills examined League of Nations debates, and thus Egypt’s role in international prohibition. Mills’ argument, in a nutshell, is that the Egyptian delegation’s uncompromising support of prohibition was a direct consequence of British imperial interests in the 1920s. It was also colonial medical doctors’ reports regarding the connection between cannabis and insanity that convinced the Egyptians that hashish was indeed dangerous. The Egyptian stand on cannabis, he claims, had no precedent in Egypt’s international diplomacy in the late nineteenth or early twentieth centuries.2 Relying, as he does, solely on British and League of Nations’ documentation, Mills presents only a partial picture of how cannabis prohibition was conceived of in Egypt itself, sometimes in conflict and sometimes in dialogue with colonial assumptions and policies. Like Ronen Shamir and Daphna Hacker, in their discussion of the 1894 Indian Hemp Commission, I maintain here that elite notions of class distinctions and civilizing of the lower classes were at the heart of indigenous debates on cannabis consumption and prohibition.3 This article, then, queries Mills’ conclusions by going back almost five decades and examining policies, elite discourses and colonial debates within Egypt.
Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) in ancient clay plaster of Ellora Caves, India
M. Singh, M. M. Sardesai
Current science 110(5):884-891 March 2016
DOI: 10.18520/cs/v110/i5/884-891
The present research trend is to explore sustainable construction materials having least environmental impact that also encapsulate in terms of our natural resources. The present communication discusses the use of raw hemp as an organic additive in the clay plaster of the 6th century AD Buddhist Caves of Ellora, a World Heritage Site. Cannabis sativa L. admixed in the clay plaster has been identified using scanning electron microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and stereomicroscopic studies and the results are compared with fresh specimens. The study indicates that many valuable properties of hemp were known to the ancient Indians in the 6th century AD.
Cannabis utilization and diffusion patterns in prehistoric Europe: a critical analysis of archaeological evidence
John McPartland, William Hegman
November 2017 Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 27(Suppl 4)
DOI: 10.1007/s00334-017-0646-7
Archaeological evidence of Cannabis sativa is comprised of textiles, cordage, fibre and seeds, or pottery impressions of those materials, as well as pseudoliths and phytoliths (pollen is not addressed here). Previous summaries of this evidence connect hemp with Bronze and Iron Age cultures in Europe. This study improves upon earlier summaries by: (1) accessing a larger database; (2) relying on original studies instead of secondary sources; (3) stratifying evidence by its relative robustness or validity. We coupled digital text-searching engines with internet archives of machine-readable texts, augmented by citation tracking of retrieved articles. The database was large, so we limited retrieval to studies that predated 27 bce for west-central Europe, and pre-ce 400 for eastern Europe. Validity of evidence was scaled, from less robust (e.g., pottery impressions of fibre) to more robust (e.g. microscopic analysis of seeds). Archaeological sites were mapped using ArcGIS 10.3. The search retrieved 136 studies, a yield four-fold greater than previous summaries when parsed to our geographic/time constraints. Only 12.5% of studies came from secondary literature. No robust evidence supports claims of Neolithic hemp usage. One Copper Age site in southeastern Europe shows robust evidence (from the Gumelni?a-Varna culture). More robust evidence appears during the Bronze Age in southeastern Europe (Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures). An Iron Age steppe culture, the Scythians, likely introduced hemp cultivation to Celtic, Slavic and Finno-Ugric cultures.The results correlate with a recent palynology study of fossil pollen in Europe. We discuss possible autochthonous domestication of Cannabis in Europe.
Cannabis utilization and diffusion patterns in prehistoric Europe: a critical analysis of archeological evidence
John M. McPartland, William Hegman
Online Resource 1, Extended methods
• accuracy and precision of various dating methods
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...pdf/references
The robustness (validity) of inferences made from archaeobotanical evidence
• textiles, cordage
• fiber
• phytoliths
• pseudoliths
• seeds
• pottery impressions of fiber or seeds
• wood charcoal
• phytochemical and genetic approaches
CONCEPTUAL REVIEW ON VIJAYA (CANNABIS SATIVA LINN.): A FORGOTTEN AMBROSIA
G.Siva Ram et al /
Int. J. Res. Ayurveda Pharm. 9 (2), 2018
DOI: 10.7897/2277-4343.09228
Vijaya (Cannabis sativa Linn.) is associated with spiritual and medicinal aspect of Indian cultural heritage. Currently it is a controlled substance placed
under Schedule-1 in the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances due to its abusive & narcotic nature. Ayurveda, the science of life has details regarding Vijaya identification, cultivation techniques, collection method, purification process, formulations, indications, antidotes, specific dietetics, etc. According to Ayurveda Vijaya, an analeptic herb is originated from amrita (ambrosia) & having the properties of Visha (poison) requires Sodhana (purification) to be utilized as a medicament. Purification helps to detoxify the unwanted qualities & also improves the therapeutic value.
Approximately fifty diseases have been cited in Ayurvedic classics which can be treated with single or compound preparations of Vijaya. Bioavailability
& efficacy is very quick as it is an ushna virya (hot potency) herb having Tikshna (sharp), Vyavayi (bioavailability even before digestion) & Yogavahi
(synergistic action) properties. In this twenty first century research in the therapeutic aspects of Cannabis sativa lead to an increase in the awareness &
knowledge of the ‘medical Cannabis’ among the scientific community. Revalidation of the medicinal evidence of Vijaya present in the ancient
Ayurvedic literature provides scope for more refined research.
Cultivation and manufacture of linen and hemp in New Spain, 1777-1800 (IN SPANISH)
Written by Ramón María Serrera Contreras
https://books.google.es/books?id=p9U...20grua&f=false
DEFORESTATION, CANNABIS CULTIVATION AND SCHWINGMOOR FORMATION AT CORS LLYN (LLYN MIRE), CENTRAL WALES
CN French, PD Moore –
New Phytologist, 1986 - Wiley Online Library
https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/...1986.tb00823.x
DOIL 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1986.tb00823.x
Find PDF
Pollen and macrofossil diagrams from the schwingmoor sediments of Llyn Mire are presented. Prior to the formation of the schwingmoor, Cannabis sativa was cultivated around Llyn lake, first to the east and later to the west of the basin. Despite Cannabis cultivation so close to Llyn, there is no evidence to suggest that the lake was used for retting purposes. A period of woodland clearance occurred immediately after the Cannabis cultivation and this process may have been responsible for the changes which led to schwingmoor formation in the basin. It is suggested that increased soil erosion into the lake, together with some eutrophication, encouraged the colonization of the lake surface by a floating mat of vegetation. The schwingmoor was formed in historic times by a floating carpet of such taxa as Carex rostrata, Sphagnum recurvum and Sphagnum section Subsecunda. The mat was initiated in the western part of the basin.
The use made of Cannabis/Humulus pollen density as a marker horizon in these studies demanded that these pollen taxa should be adequately separated, and the large numbers of grains of this type present in the sediments permitted the employment of numerical methods based on pore protrusion, which are described here.
Early phytocannabinoid chemistry to endocannabinoids and beyond
Raphael Mechoulam, Lumír O. Hanuš, Roger Pertwee, Allyn C. Howlett
Nature Reviews Neuroscience volume 15, pages 757–764 (2014)
DOI: 10.1038/nrn3811
Isolation and structure elucidation of most of the major cannabinoid constituents — including ?9-tetrahydrocannabinol (?9-THC), which is the principal psychoactive molecule in Cannabis sativa — was achieved in the 1960s and 1970s. It was followed by the identification of two cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s and the early 1990s and by the identification of the endocannabinoids shortly thereafter. There have since been considerable advances in our understanding of the endocannabinoid system and its function in the brain, which reveal potential therapeutic targets for a wide range of brain disorders.
In Japanese but easy to translate with Google translate
Fossil hemp fruits in the earliest Jomon period from the Okinoshima site, Chiba Prefecture, Japan
Makiko Kobayashi Arata Momohara, Susumu Okitsu, Seiichi Yanagisawa and Tozo Okamoto
https://hisbot.jp/journalfiles/1601/1601_011-018.pdf
Fruits of Cannabis sativa were found from the sediment of the earliest Jomon period at the Okinoshima site, Tateyama City, Chiba Prefecture, central Japan. The fruit of Cannabis sativa can be distinguished from that of Humulus by the size and morphology. The stones of Humulus lupulus and H. scandens have a circlular lateral view and a circular or heart-shaped attachment on the top, and lacks a shallow hollow at the base. The stone of Humulus lupulus is smaller than that of Cannabis sativa. The fruits obtained from the Okinoshima site and those of Cannabis sativa both have an ovoid lateral view, a round knob on the top instead of a heart-shaped attachment, and a shallow hollow at the base. Thus the fruits of the Okinoshima site were identified as Cannabis sativa, the oldest record of its fruits in the world, although its fibers have been found from the sediments of the incipient Jomon period at the Torihama shell midden, Fukui Prefecture. Contrary to fossil fibers that can be imported from outside Japan, existence of fossil fruits implies that Cannabis sativa grew in Japan in the early Jomon period. Hemp may have been cultivated and utilized around the site
From schizophrenia to sainthood – Tajuddin Fakir
Amruta Huddar, Tasneem Raja, Sanjeev Jain, Swaran P. Singh
Asian Journal of Psychiatry xxx (xxxx) xxx
DOI: 10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102465
This paper discusses the case of Tajuddin, a patient in the mental asylum of Nagpur towards the end of the 19th century. Discussions are based on hospital records and annual reports and relevant literature review of the life and times of Tajuddin. Hospital and associated records indicate that Tajuddin was thought to be suffering from cannabis psychosis. He was released from the British army for inappropriate behaviour and was admitted to the Nagpur Mental Asylum, currently a Regional Mental Hospital. During his inpatient stay Tajuddin was believed to have special powers and was considered a saint. The hospital, its staff and patients continue to pay homage to Tajuddin to this day. Religious Trusts established in his name extend all the way up to Mecca. His followers include high ranking officers and Bollywood celebrities. Tajuddin was a charismatic leader, despite suffering from what currently may be considered schizophrenia. His case reflects a curious contradiction of the cultural understandings of psychosis and the shifting sands on which psychiatry’s diagnostic foundations are built.
*Frozen Tombs of Siberia: The Pazyryk Burials of Iron Age Horsemen.
Rudenko, Sergei Ivanovich (1970).
University of California Press. ISBN 0520013956.
https://historyandsoon.wordpress.com.. .zyryk-burials/
https://sci-hub.tw/10.1525/aa.1973.75.4.02a01350
https://issuu.com/horsebackarchers/d...the_altai_moun
Giorgio Samorini Network
https://samorini.it/
Presentation This web-site wants to bring cognitive contributions and instruments for the study of the phenomenological field of the psychoactive drugs; a field of research known as Science of Drugs.
This web-site does not deal with the problematic aspects of the drugs, nor is interested on the apologetical aspects related to their modern use, but reports a bulk of scientific data which concern the drugs as phenomenon, in their relationship with the living beings, especially the human beings.
The editor of this web-site is an independent researcher specialized on the ethnobotany and the anthropology of drugs, author of specialized books and writings in Italian and in other languages (see his bibliography).
Although many texts of this site are in Italian, English titles are everywhere present, and this double-language is applied to the texts of different places of the site; furthermore, the wide section “Documentation” contains documents in many languages. All the translations from the other languages vs. Italian are edited by the author of the site.
The data here presented are referenced by specific bibliographies located at the bottom of each page, and integrated in the section “Documentation”.
HASHISH IN ISLAM 9TH TO 18TH CENTURY
GABRIEL G. NAHAS,
Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med.
Vol. 58, No. 9, December 1982
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art...00095-0056.pdf
CANNABIS was used as an intoxicant @hang) in India and Iran as far back as 1000 B.C.1,2 It was adopted in the Moslem Middle East 1,800 years later, two centuries after the death of the prophet Mohammed. Indeed, during his life time (A.D. 570-632), the use of cannabis preparations (known in the Middle East as hashish, which means "grass" in Arabic) was unknown. This might be the reason why the prophet did not explicitly forbid in the holy Koran intoxication by cannabis, although he proscribed that induced by fermented beverages (alcohol, wine, beer). There is no evidence that the Arabs became familiar with the intoxicating properties of hashish before the ninth century. At that time, they had already conquered Iraq and Syria and swept eastward to the border of Persia and Central Asia and westward through Asia Minor, North Africa, and Spain. (It was in 752 that the relentless Muslim expansion was halted at Poitiers by the Frankish king Charles Martel.) In the ninth century, well after the establishment in A.D. 750 of the splendid Abasside caliphate in Bagdad, noted for its universities, Arab scholars translated the Greek texts of Dioscorides and Galen, and became familiar with the medicinal properties of cannabis. One physician of the early 10th century, Ibn Wahshiyah, warned of possible complications resulting from use of hashish. In his book, On Poisons, he claimed that the plant extract might cause death when mixed with other drugs. Another physician, the Persian born al-Rhazes, counselled against over-prescribing cannabis.' Traders travelling to Persia from India and Central Asia also may have spread knowledge of the plant's medicinal properties. the use of hashish as an intoxicant surfaced in Islam. Called hashish instead of bhang, the Hindu designation, it was first consumed by members of religious Persian and Iraqui sects located at the eastern periphery of the Islamic empire which bordered the central steppes where the plant had its origins. And there was little cultural opposition at first because the holy Koran, which formulates in detail all of the rules of daily Muslim living, does not forbid explicitly the consumption of cannabis, although it proscribes the use of fermented beverages. And around A.D. 1000 the Fatima King al-Hakim issued an edict prohibiting the sale of alcohol throughout Syria and Egypt,3 but did not ban cannabis.
Hashish in Morocco and Lebanon A comparative study
Kenza Afsahi Salem Darwich
International Journal of Drug Policy (2016),
doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.02.024
Maghreb and Middle East have a long history of consumption, production and marketing of cannabis. Over the past 12 centuries, migration, trade and different spiritual practices and trends have led to the expansion of cannabis markets. This long period is marked by stages and rifts caused by foreign interference, a worldwide prohibition of cannabis at the beginning of the 20th century and increased global demand in the 1960s. In the 1960s and the 1970s,
global cannabis production increased, particularly in developing countries. Morocco and Lebanon became major producers of hashish for export to markets in West and Central Europe, Africa and the Middle East. The two countries have cultural and religious commonalities and similar socio-economic conditions in cannabis production areas. However, there are also some important differences in the way crop growing areas have developed in
the Rif and in the Beqaa. Unlike in Morocco where cannabis is a traditional and locally consumed crop, cannabis consumption in Lebanon remains marginal. By using a comparative approach, this paper aims to evaluate changes in production in the traditional areas of cannabis cultivation in the Rif and the Beqaa and to better understand the role that these countries play in current trends in the global cultivation and consumption of cannabis
Hemp in ancient rope and fabric from the Christmas Cave in Israel: Talmudic background and DNA sequence identification
Terence M. Murphy, Nahum Ben-Yehuda , R.E. Taylor, John R. Southon
Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 2579e2588
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.05.004
The “Christmas Cave”, a cave in the Qidron Valley near the Dead Sea and Qumran, has yielded a complex collection of plant-derived rope and fabric artifacts. Using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify DNA of the samples, we estimated the sizes and determined restriction patterns and base sequences of chloroplast genes, primarily rbcL (gene for the large subunit of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase). DNA was successfully extracted from all samples, but was limited to sizes of approximately 200e300 base pairs. As expected, the DNA extracted from the samples was identified as coming primarily from flax (Linum usitatissamum L.), but two samples had a significant fraction, and all samples had at least a trace, of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) DNA. Artifacts from the Christmas Cave were thought to date from Roman times, but it was thought possible that some could be much older. Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)-based 14C dating confirmed that the samples contained representatives from both the Roman and Chalcolithic periods. This paper provides a synthesis of DNA, isotope, and literary analysis to illuminate
textile history at the Christmas Cave site.
Hemp Production in Italy
Stefano Amaducci
June 2005 Journal of Industrial Hemp 10(1):109-115
DOI: 10.1300/J237v10n01_09
After a short history of hemp in Italy, this article lists the events that have brought back the cultivation of this fibre crop in Italy in recent years. The cultivation technique used for baby hemp is briefly described and the preliminary results of its processing are given. Baby hemp is a hemp crop grown at high plant densities (400-500 plants m2) that is chemically desiccated when the height of 120-140 cm is reached and that is harvested with the machines used for flax. Advantages, problems and possible solutions for this technique are presented
HIGH POINTS: AN HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF CANNABIS
BARNEY WARF
Geographical Review (2014) Volume 104, Issue 4 414-438
DOI: 10.1111/j.1931-0846.2014.12038.x
Cannabis, including hemp and its psychoactive counterpart, has a long but
largely overlooked historical geography. Situating the topic within varied perspectives such as world-systems theory, Foucauldian biopolitics, and the moral economy of drugs, this paper charts its diffusion over several millennia, noting the contingent and uneven ways in which it was enveloped within varying social and political circumstances. Following a brief theorization, it explores the plant’s early uses in East and South Asia, its shift to the Middle East, and resultant popularity in the Arab world and Africa. Next, it turns to its expansion under colonialism, including deliberate cultivation by Portuguese and British authorities in the New World as part of the construction of a pacified labor force. The fifth section offers an overview of cannabis’s contested history in the United States, in which a series of early 20th-century moral panics led to its demonization; later, the drug enjoyed gradual liberalization. Keywords: cannabis, marijuana, hemp, drugs, moral geographies
History of Cannabis and Its Preparations in Saga, Science, and Sobriquet
Ethan B. Russo
CHEMISTRY & BIODIVERSITY – Vol. 4 (8):1614-48 (2007)
DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.200790144
Cannabis sativa L. is possibly one of the oldest plants cultivated by man, but has remained a source of controversy throughout its history.Whether pariah or panacea, this most versatile botanical has provided a mirror to medicine and has pointed the way in the last two decades toward a host of medical challenges from analgesia to weight loss through the discovery of its myriad biochemical attributes and the endocannabinoid system wherein many of its components operate. This study surveys the history of cannabis, its genetics and preparations. A review of cannabis usage in Ancient Egypt will serve as an archetype, while examining first mentions from various Old World cultures and their pertinence for contemporary scientific investigation. Cannabis historians of the past have provided promising clues to potential treatments for a wide array of currently puzzling medical syndromes including chronic pain, spasticity, cancer, seizure disorders, nausea, anorexia, and infectious disease that remain challenges for 21st century medicine. Information gleaned from the history of cannabis administration in its various forms may provide useful points of departure for research into novel delivery techniques and standardization of cannabis-based medicines that will allow their prescription for treatment of these intractable medical conditions.
Histories of Cannabis Use and Control in Nigeria, 1927–1967
Gernot Klantschnig
In: Drugs in Africa, Histories and Ethnographies of Use, Trade, and Control
Charles Ambler; Neil Carrier; Gernot Klantschnig
DOI: 10.1057/9781137321916_4
Much of the available research on illegal drugs, such as cannabis, heroin,
or cocaine, has shown a weak understanding of the drugs’ historical roots
in Africa and the domestic meanings of these substances and their control.
This has been a result of a lack of openly available sources on these substances and also because much of this work has been conducted by international control agencies or researchers working closely with them and hence research has often served an immediate policy purpose rather than a better historical understanding of drugs.
A few recent studies have started to alleviate these shortcomings. Explicitly challenging these ahistorical views, Emmanuel Akyeampong and Stephen Ellis have begun to sketch the longer history of West Africa’s role in the trade in cannabis, heroin, and cocaine dating it back to the beginning of the twentieth century. A few other authors have begun work on other illegal or quasi-legal substances in other parts of the continent. These new studies have been most successful at highlighting the historical dynamics of drugs and their control when they have tied their analyses to the more developed literature on the social history of alcohol—an explicit aim of many of the contributions in this volume as well
A mummy unearthed from the pastures of heaven
October 1994 National geographic 186(4):80-103
N. Polosmak
https://nationalgeographicbackissues.. .ober-1994.html
Locked in an icy burial chamber beneath the Siberian steppes for 2, 400 years, a Pazyryk gentle- woman comes to light along with possessions chosen for eternity.
ICE MUMMIES: SIBERIAN ICE MAIDEN
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transc...7siberian.html
Tonight on NOVA, sacrificial horses guard her tomb. Gold and silk adorn her body. For 24 centuries, she was frozen in time. Was she a priestess? A warrior chief? NOVA unearths the secrets of "The Siberian Ice Maiden".
The thunder of hooves on the Siberian steppes echoes a legendary past. Mounted tribes once ruled these high plateaus, where towering stone monuments reach toward the heavens. Golden treasures from these days are rare and enigmatic. But new finds cast light on a culture cloaked in mystery: Sacrificed animals, valued possessions, and a startling emissary from this age of warriors—a 2400 year old woman frozen in time. But this Ice Maiden will not be left to rest. Removed from the grave, her body has traveled half way around the world to be displayed and admired. Now, she is returning to Siberia, back to the scientist who discovered her, and who hopes to learn more of the Ice Maiden's secrets.
When Natalia Polosmak found this woman and the wealth of artifacts buried with her, it was celebrated as an archeological triumph. But now, taken from her tomb, the body has sparked passion and controversy—among both scientists and the people of her homeland.
Few archaeologists have ventured into the rugged Altay Mountains. But in 1993, Natalia Polosmak was determined to reach the Ukok Plateau. In a remote part of Asia where four countries converge, she was drawn by tales of an ancient people called the Pazyryk.
Iconic 2,500 year old Siberian princess 'died from breast cancer', reveals MRI scan
https://siberiantimes.com/science/ca...ique-mri-scan/
Studies of the mummified Ukok 'princess' - named after the permafrost plateau in the Altai Mountains where her remains were found - have already brought extraordinary advances in our understanding of the rich and ingenious Pazyryk culture.
The tattoos on her skin are works of great skill and artistry, while her fashion and beauty secrets - from items found in her burial chamber which even included a 'cosmetics bag' - allow her impressive looks to be recreated more than two millennia after her death.
Now Siberian scientists have discerned more about the likely circumstances of her demise, but also of her life, use of cannabis, and why she was regarded as a woman of singular importance to her mountain people.
Her use of drugs to cope with the symptoms of her illnesses evidently gave her 'an altered state of mind', leading her kinsmen to the belief that she could communicate with the spirits, the experts believe.
The MRI, conducted in Novosibirsk by eminent academics Andrey Letyagin and Andrey Savelov, showed that the 'princess' suffered from osteomyelitis, an infection of the bone or bone marrow, from childhood or adolescence
Identification of Cannabis Fiber from the Astana Cemeteries, Xinjiang, China, with Reference to Its Unique Decorative Utilization
TAO CHEN, SHUWEN YAO, MARK MERLIN, HUIJUAN MAI, ZHENWEI QIU, YAOWU HU, BO WANG, CHANGSUI WANG,
AND HONGEN JIANG
March 2014 Economic Botany 68(1)
DOI: 10.1007/s12231-014-9261-z
In the Turpan District of Xinjiang, China, large numbers of ancient clay figurines, with representations including equestrians, animals, and actors, have been excavated from the Astana Cemeteries and date from about the 3rd to the 9th centuries C.E. Based on visual inspection, the tails of some of the figurines representing horses are made of plant fibers. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, light microscope examination, and drying–twist tests demonstrated that these fibers were extracted from one or more stalks of hemp (Cannabis) plants. This is a unique report of the utilization of Cannabis bast fibers for figurine decoration in ancient Turpan.
INDIAN HEMP DRUGS AND INSANITY.
G. F. W. Ewens,
THE Indian Medical Gazette NOVEMBER, 1904.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art...71518-0021.pdf
the Superintendent of the Central Lunatic Asylum, Lahore, raises again the question which ten years ago was very much debated among medical men in India.
It will be observed that, as a result of his experience while in charge of the large asylum at Lahore, Capt. Evvens is of opinion (1) that there is a form of mental disease which seems to have a direct relation to the excessive use of hemp drugs, as "a definite effect following a definite cause (2) it has a " definite train of symptoms of a fairly regular character."
Those of us who were in India ten years ago will remember the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission.
Instruction to sow, cultivate and benefit flax and hemp in New Spain (IN SPANISH)
Written by Miguel de la Grua Talamanca and Branciforte
https://books.google.es/books?id=98p...20grua&f=false
Man and Cannabis in Africa: A Study of Diffusion
Brian M. du Toit
African Economic History No. 1 (Spring, 1976), pp. 17-35
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4617576...n_tab_contents
The past decade has seen an awakening of research interests regarding psychoactive and hallucinogenic drugs. While the new world is particulary rich in these natural products, no drug has seen a wide a distribution nor as universal an appeal as Cannabis. This hallucinogen is known by different local refferents but the most widely distributed is marijuana in the United States and Latin America, and hemp or Indian hemp in many of the Anglophone areas of the world. While it has near universial distrabution, it is nonetheless to the old world we must look for its origin and original acceptance.
Cannabis was originally cultivated as a fiber plant and only its leaves were used in the pharmacopeia of different peoples. Linnaeus classified it as a simple species Cannabis sativa, but recent research indicates there may well be several species. At this stage we are not concerned with this botanical question but intend to focus on the scocial use and diffusion of the plant through Africa.
In this paper we will examine in turn the historical, sociological, and linguistic evidence relating to the Cannabis plant in Africa. Then after a brief review of current hypotheses regarding the diffusion of Cannabis, we will propose a more encompassing to account for its spread in sub-Saharan Africa.
Marijuana Australiana.
John Lawrence Jiggens
https://eprints.qut.edu.au/15949/1/J...ens_Thesis.pdf
The word 'marijuana' was introduced to Australia by the US Bureau of Narcotics via the Diggers newspaper, Smith's Weekly, in 1938. Marijuana was said to be 'a new drug that maddens victims' and it was sensationally described as an 'evil sex drug'. The resulting tabloid furore saw the plant cannabis sativa banned in Australia, even though cannabis had been a well-known and widely used drug in Australia for many decades.
In 1964, a massive infestation of wild cannabis was found growing along a stretch of the Hunter River between Singleton and Maitland in New South Wales. The explosion in Australian marijuana use began there.It was fuelled after 1967 by US soldiers on rest and recreation leave from Vietnam. It was the Baby-Boomer young who were turning on. Pot smoking was overwhelmingly associated with the generation born in the decade after the Second World War. As the conflict over the Vietnam War raged in Australia,it provoked intense generational conflict between the Baby-Boomers and older generations. Just as in the US, pot was adopted by Australian Baby-Boomers as their symbol; and, as in the US, the attack on pot users served as code for an attack on the young, the Left, and the alternative.
In 1976,the 'War on Drugs ' began in earnest in Australia with paramilitary attacks on the hippie colonies at Cedar Bay in Queensland and! Tuntable Falls in New South Wales.Itwas a time of increasing US style prohibition characterised by 'tough-on-drugs' right-wing rhetoric, police crackdowns, numerous murders, and a marijuana drought followed quickly by a heroin plague; in short by a massive worsening of 'the drug problem'. During this decade, organised crime moved into the pot scene and the price of pot skyrocketed, reaching $450 an ounce in 1988. Thanks to the Americanisation of drugs policy, the black market made 'a killing'.
In Marijuana Australiana I argue that the 'War on Drugs' developed -not for health reasons -but for :reasons of social control; as a domestic counter-revolution against the Whitlamite, Baby-Boomer generation by older Nix.onite Drug War warriors like Queensland Premier, Bjelke-Petersen. It was a misuse of drugs policy which greatly worsened drug problems, bringing with it American-style organised crime.
As the subtitle suggests, Marijuana Australiana relies significantly on 'alternative' sources,and I trawl the waters of popular culture,. looking for songs, posters,comics and underground magazines to produce an 'underground' history of cannabis in Australia. This 'pop' approach is balanced with a hard-edged, quantitative analysis of the size of the marijuana market, the movement of price, and the seizure figures in the section called 'History By Numbers'. As Alfred McCoy notes, we need to understand drugs as commodities. It is only through a detailed understanding of the drug trade that the deeper secrets of this underground world can be revealed. In this section,I present an economic history of the cannabis market and formulate three laws of the market
Truely great book
*Marihuana - The First Twelve Thousand Years
Ernest L Abel
January 1980 Publisher: Plenum Press
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-2189-5
Introduction
Of all the plants men have ever grown, none has been praised and denounced as often as marihuana (Cannabis sativa). Throughout the ages, marihuana has been extolled as one of man's greatest benefactors and cursed as one of his greatest scourges. Marihuana is undoubtedly a herb that has been many things to many people. Armies and navies have used it to make war, men and women to make love. Hunters and fishermen have snared the most ferocious creatures, from the tiger to the shark, in its herculean weave. Fashion designers have dressed the most elegant women in its supple knit. Hangmen have snapped the necks of thieves and murderers with its fiber. Obstetricians have eased the pain of childbirth with its leaves. Farmers have crushed its seeds and used the oil within to light their lamps. Mourners have thrown its seeds into blazing fires and have had their sorrow transformed into blissful ecstasy by the fumes that filled the air.
Marihuana has been known by many names: hemp, hashish, dagga, bhang, loco weed, grass-the list is endless. Formally christened Cannabis sativa in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus, marihuana is one of nature's hardiest specimens. It needs little care to thrive. One need not talk to it, sing to it, or play soothing tranquil Brahms lullabies to coax it to grow. It is as vigorous as a weed. It is ubiquitous. It fluorishes under nearly every possible climatic condition.
It sprouts from the earth not meekly, not cautiously in suspense of where it is and what it may find, but defiantly, arrogantly, confident that whatever the conditions it has the stamina to survive. It is not a magnanimous herb. Plants unfortunate enough to fall in the shade of its serrated leaflets will find that marihuana does not share its sunlight. It wants it all. Marihuana also does not like to share its territory. It encroaches on its neighbors. Its roots gobble up all the nutrients in the soil, and like a vampire it sucks the life blood from the earth.
Marihuana is a very rapidly growing plant, attaining a usual height of three to twenty feet at maturity. Five hundred years ago, the French author Rabelais wrote that it was "sown at the first coming of the swallows and pulled out of the ground when the cicadies began to get hoarse."
Marihuana is dioecious, which means that there are sexually distinct male and female plants. At one time, farmers believed that only the females produced the intoxicating hashish resin. Now it is known that both sexes produce this gummy secretion. The male, however, manufactures less resin and produces flowers earlier than the female. To prevent a pollinating marriage, cannabis growers destroy these males as soon as they are detected. Had he known of this age-old custom, Freud might have written an insightful treatise on the symbolism of this bit of agricultural castration.
The intoxicating resin is secreted by glandular hairs located around the flowers and to a certain extent in the lower portions of the plant. The actual substance in the resin responsible for the plant's inebriating effects is a chemical called delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (~ THC). In very hot climates, as in India and North Africa, so much resin is produced that the plant appears to be covered with a sticky dew even as it bakes under the parching rays of the hot sun. This resin serves as a protective shield preventing loss of water from the plant to the dry air. And of course, the more resin, the more A 9 -THC likely to be present. Cannabis seeds are brownish and rather hard. When pressed, they yield a yellowish-green oil once used to make soap, lamp oil, paint, and varnish. Bird fanciers claim that hemp seed stimulates birds to develop superior plumage. While the seeds contain far less -THC than the leaves or flowers, the chemical is still present. Although there are no reports of any birds flying into trees or houses after feasting on a meal of cannabis seeds, it was by burning these seeds and inhaling the fumes given off that some ancient societies first experienced cannabis's intoxicating powers.
The stem of the plant is square and hollow and covered with strong fibers. The first step in removing these fibers is called retting and involves soaking the stems so that partial decomposition occurs. This disengages the nonfibrous tissue. The stem is then bent so that the fibers can separate. Once separated, they can be stripped away and spun into thread or twisted into cordage and rope.
Cannabis will grow under most conditions that will support life. It is inherently indestructible. Long after other species of plants have disappeared because of drought, infestation, or climatic changes, cannabis will still exist. Cannabis is one of nature's best examples of survival of the fittest. Depending on the conditions under which it grows, cannabis will either produce more resin or more fiber. When raised in hot, dry climates, resin is produced in great quantities and fiber quality is poor. In countries with mild, humid weather, less resin is produced and the fiber is stronger and more durable. It is because of these climate-related characteristics that most Europeans knew very little of the intoxicating properties of the cannabis plant until the nineteenth century when hashish was imported from India and the Arab countries. Prior to this time, cannabis was merely a valuable source of fiber and seed oil to most Europeans, nothing more. In India, Persia, and the Arab countries, the main value of the plant resided in its inebriating resin. People in these countries were also among the first to use cannabis fiber to make nets and ropes. But the sticky covering on the plant was what they valued most, especially where alcohol was proscribed by religious doctrine. Depending on his personal interests, the cannabis farmer could increase his yield of fiber or resin by various measures. To produce a plant with a better fiber, he grew his plants very close to one another. This reduced the amount of sunlight falling on individual plants and
promoted the growth of long stems and fibers. To obtain more resin, he sowed his seeds farther apart. This gave each plant more sunlight and forced the plant to secrete more resin in order to keep itself from drying out. But regardless of whether he was after the fiber or the resin, male plants were always destroyed before they could court the females, since the production of seeds by the female invariably reduced the quality of fiber and resin.
Cannabis was harvested by various methods. If the fiber were primarily of interest, the stems would be cut fairly close to the ground with a specially designed sickle with the blade set at right angles to the handle. Harvesting the resin was a different matter. People who grew cannabis for personal pleasure simply snipped some leaves whenever the desire moved them. In countries such as Nepal where cannabis became part of the agricultural economy, the resin was gathered more systematically but in a less sanitary fashion: after the female plants were ripe with their sticky coverings, workers were hired to run naked through the cannabis fields. As they brushed against the plants, a certain amount of resin would adhere to their bodies. At the end of each run they would scrape the sticky resin from their bodies and start again. Since cannabis resin and water do not mix very well, the perspiration from their sweating bodies did not find its way into these scrapings. (The same cannot be
said for whatever else was on their bodies.) After the harvesting was through, the scrapings were shaped into bricks and readied for market. Buyers were rarely finicky about anything other than how pleasureable was the intoxication they felt when they consumed their purchases.
New fossil evidence for the past cultivation and processing of hemp (Cannabis sativa) in Eastern England
R. H. W. BRADSHAW, P. COXON, J. R. A. GREIG, A. R. HALL
November 1981 New Phytologist
doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1981.tb02331.x
Fossil records of Cannabiaceae pollen and Cannabis achenes from Flandrian deposits at three sites in eastern England are presented as further evidence for the past cultivation of this crop. It is suggested that retting of hemp to extract fibre was carried out at each of the sites.
NORTH INDIA: THE CANNABIS SANCTUARY
https://www.indianlandraceexchange.c.. .bis-sanctuary/
Introduction - India has known about cannabis from the very dawn of the civilizations at the indus valley and has since used the plant for important life saving applications such as medicine, food, and even shelter. Inked in the ancient vedas by the Indian scholars are some of the earliest documented accounts of cannabis used as a medicine that goes back to 2000 BCE, and even the people who invaded India couldn’t stay too far from this plant,e.g. the Portuguese who captured Goa in 1510, quickly learned how cannabis played an important role in Indian culture, day to day applications and especially about the narcotic effects of the plant. A glimpse of which can be found in the Notes by Garcia de orta
O bangue é formado por folhas secas e hastes tentras de cânhamo (Canabis sativa, Lin.) que se fumam o mascam e que embriaga como o ópio.
Translation: Bangue (Bhang) is made of dry leaves and tender stemps of hemp, which they smoke or Garcia de orta A botanist who wrote about foreign cannabis colonies of Portugal in 1534 in his work "Glossário luso-asiatico". chew, and it intoxicates like opium Even during the British colonial rule in India which lasted over 200 years, in 1894 an extensive study was conducted and a report was published by an indo-british team known as Indian hemp drugs commission, which pinned down the Physical, psychological and socio-cultural effects of cannabis in india.
The plant itself is virtually found in every direction you go to in India However North India is widely cited as the biggest charas producing region,featuring the notorious and the elusive highland himalayan villages, spreading all the way from Kashmir to Himachal and down to the China border in Uttarakhand. Any kind of enquiry concerning cannabis in India is incomplete without understanding the role of north indian cannabis regions, such as - Jammu and Kashmir, himachal pradesh, haryana, punjab, uttar pradesh, uttrakhand and rajasthan.Although it is to be noted duely that punjab and haryana being flat lands amongst the listed states doesn't have any rigorous cultivation or large feral fields of cannabis anymore just like the capital state New Delhi where an exponentially rising population has already taken a severe toll on the nature and some of the regional cultivars from these areas have either vanished or are on the verge of being lost forever.
On the Natural History, Action, and Uses of Indian Hemp
Mon J Med Sci. 1851 Jul; 4(19): 26–45.
Alexander Christison, M.D., Edin.1
Indian hemp has been long known in India, Persia, and other Eastern countries as a medicinal and intoxicating agent, but was little known to Europeans until it was brought prominently into notice by Dr O'Shaughnessy of Calcutta, in the year 1839. [On Indian Hemp, &c.; Calcutta, 1839.]
The ancients were almost ignorant of its virtues. The Greek physicians, as we are told by Dioscorides, were acquainted with the emollient properties of the seeds of hemp ; but they seem to have been wholly unaware of the narcotic virtues of the plant (Diosc. iv. civ.). Galen and his contemporaries were not much more informed on the subject; for that author merely speaks of its seeds being sometimes used as a whet after supper, to create a de'sire for wine, but condemns the practice, because, when used freely, they heat the system and cause determination towards the head (Opera, ii. 53, Edit. Basiliae, 1549 ; De Facultatibus Alimentorum, c. xlix.). It is alleged, however, that hemp was known at an early period to the Chinese. In a communication to the Academie des Sciences in 1849, extracts are produced from a Chinese work, showing that so far back as a.d. 220, a Chinese physician, named Hoa-Tho, pro- duced insensibility in his patients by means of a preparation of hemp, and that operations were then performed without pain to the patient (Stanislas Julien, inComptes Rendus,&c., 1849, p. 197). This statement would, however, require further confirmation. There seems little doubt that in the year 600 the Hindoos were in the habit of employing hemp ; and that it has been in constant use ever since as a means of allaying pain, and more particularly as an intoxicating agent, among the inhabitants of the East.
ON THE PREPARATIONS OF THE INDIAN HEMP, OR GUJNJAH,* (Cannabis Indica)
W. B. O'SIAUGHNESSY,
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art...00864-0001.pdf
The narcotic effects of hemp are popularly known in the South of Africa, South America, Turkey, Egypt, Asia Minor, India, and the adjacent territories of the Malays, Burmese, and Siamese. In all these countries hemp is used in various forms, by the dissipated and depraved, as the ready agent of a pleasing intoxication. In the popular medicine of these nations, we find it extensively employed for a multitude of affections, especially those in which spasm or neuralgic pain are the prominent symptoms. But in Western Europe its use, either as a stimulant or as a remedy, is equally unknown. With the exception of the trial, as a frolic, of the Egyptian " hasheesh," by a few youths in Marseilles, and of the clinical use of the wine of hemp by Hahnemann, as shown in a sub. sequent extract, I have been unable to trace any notice of the employment of this drug in Europe. Much difference of opinion exists on the question, whether the hemp so abundant in Europe, even in high northern latitudes, is identical in specific characters with the hemp of Asia Minor and India. The extraordinary symptoms produced by the latter depend on a resinous secretion with which it abounds, and which seems totally absent in the European kind. The closest physical resemblance or even identity exists between both plants; difference of climate seems to me more than sufficient to account for the absence of the resinous secretion, and consequent want of narcotic power in that indigenous in colder countries.
Origin, Early History, Cultivation, and Characteristics of the Traditional Varieties of Moroccan Cannabis sativa L.
Fatima Bachir, Mohamed Eddouks, Mohamed Arahou, and Mohammed Fekhaoui
Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research Volume X, Number X, 2021
DOI: 10.1089/can.2021.0020
Background: Cannabis has been cultivated and used for centuries in the north Moroccan Rif (local name is kif). However, its history is poorly known and the date of its first introduction and dispersal in Morocco is still difficult to be precise.
Aim: The purpose of the present work is to review the literature on the origin, history, and cultivation of Cannabis in Morocco, as well as data on the morphological, genetic, and phytochemical characteristics of local cultivated varieties.
Discussion: Considering the importance of preserving the fragile environment of the Rif and the future development of the Moroccan medical Cannabis market, which will require authentication of the raw material, the use of local strains which are well adapted to the particular environment of the Rif is highly recommended. However, there is no document that summarizes and clarifies the nomenclature and the characteristics of local Moroccan Cannabis. In addition, the recent adoption by Rif growers of improved hybrid cultivars is obliterating the traits and peculiarities of Moroccan Cannabis through genetic introgression.
Conclusion: Summarizing and discussing the data from the literature on the characteristics of local Moroccan Cannabis varieties may be useful for their identification and the localization of the areas of the Rif region where their cultivation is still practiced.
Find PDF, I have
Physical evidence for the antiquity of Cannabis sativa L.
Fleming, M. P., and R. C. Clarke
Journal of the International Hemp Association 5(2): 80-95. 9 1998.
https://www.internationalhempassocia.. ./jiha5208.html
Cannabis has been an important economic crop plant for six millennia. Its uses for fiber, food, oil, medicine, and as a recreational/religious drug have been prevalent throughout this period. Recent palynological research into the agricultural and environmental history of Cannabis has produced curves for Cannabaceae pollen at a number of sites in Europe and America. Additional archaeological remains and written records provide evidence for both Old and New World occurrences. This paper discusses the origin, domestication and migration of hemp as a crop plant as documented by palynological and archaeological evidence. In addition, the comparative morphology of Cannabis andHumulus pollen grains is described, and the problems of interpreting Cannabaceae pollen in the stratigraphic record are discussed.
Phytochemical and genetic analyses of ancient cannabis from Central Asia
Ethan B. Russo, Hong-En Jiang, Xiao Li, Alan Sutton, Andrea Carboni, Francesca del Bianco, Giuseppe Mandolino, David J. Potter, You-Xing Zhao, Subir Bera, Yong-Bing Zhang, En-Guo Lü, David K. Ferguson, Francis Hueber, Liang-Cheng Zhao, Chang-Jiang Liu, Yu-Fei Wang, and Cheng-Sen
J Exp Bot. 2008 Nov; 59(15): 4171–4182.
DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern260
The Yanghai Tombs near Turpan, Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region, China have recently been excavated to reveal the 2700-year-old grave of a Caucasoid shaman whose accoutrements included a large cache of cannabis, superbly preserved by climatic and burial conditions. A multidisciplinary international team demonstrated through botanical examination, phytochemical investigation, and genetic deoxyribonucleic acid analysis by polymerase chain reaction that this material contained tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive component of cannabis, its oxidative degradation product, cannabinol, other metabolites, and its synthetic enzyme, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase, as well as a novel genetic variant with two single nucleotide polymorphisms. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination. To our knowledge, these investigations provide the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent, and contribute to the medical and archaeological record of this pre-Silk Road culture.
Preliminary report on a mid-19th century Cannabis pollen peak in NE Spain: Historical context and potential chronological significance
Valentí Rull and Teresa Vegas-Vilarrúbia
The Holocene
2014, Vol. 24(10) 1378–1383
DOI: 10.1177/0959683614540964
Cannabis sativa L. (hemp) was introduced in Europe from Asia Minor during classical Greek and Roman times. Since then, hemp pollen abundances between 10% and 80% in Late Holocene sediments have been considered indicative of the local or regional cultivation and/or retting of this plant. In this paper, a unique pollen peak of >60% recorded in Lake Montcortès (pre-Pyrenean foothills, NE Spain) is evaluated as a potential chronostratigraphic marker. Previously, this pollen peak was dated to ad 1757 using a depth–age model based on AMS 14C dates from sedimentary macrofossils, but a recent calibration of the model using varve counting has refined the date of the hemp pollen maximum to ad 1839. This date coincides with an outstanding socio-political shift from feudalism to liberalism in Spain and the corresponding dismantling of the royal navy, the main consumer of hemp fibre. These events produced a well-documented decline in Cannabis cultivation across the Iberian Peninsula. The sharpness of the Cannabis pollen peak, its accurate dating using annual varves and its almost exact coincidence with outstanding and widespread historical events suggest that this palynological landmark could be used as a chronostratigraphic marker for recent centuries. This possibility, as well as the geographical extent of this potential datum, should be confirmed with further studies.
P U R P L E and GOLD over THOUSANDS of YEARS
NATALIA POLOSMAK
HYPOTHESES AND FACTS Archaeology DISCOVERY OF SIBERIA
Science first hand : 30 Jan 2005 , Discovery of SIBERIA , volume 4, N1
https://scfh.ru/en/papers/purple-and...ands-of-years/
The first burial mounds with “frozen” tombs were discovered by V. V. Radlov (Katanda burial mound and a burial mound at the Berel burial site of the Pazyryk culture, Kazakhstan) in 1865. He was the first to find clothes preserved in ice. One of the most remarkable of his finds — the so-called Katanda caftan — is now exhibited at the State Historical Museum (Moscow). The collection of this museum has another unique find from the Katanda burial, a “tailcoat” of sable fur covered with Chinese silk (this garment is called a “tailcoat” because it is made in this style)
Recent palaeoenvironmental evidence for the processing of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in eastern England during the medieval period
Benjamin R. Gearey, M. Jane Bunting, Harry Kenward
Medieval Archaeology · January 2005
DOI: 10.1179/007660905X54125
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) — whose origins as a domesticated plant probably lie in C. Asia — has been cultivated in England since at least a.d. 800 (and before this perhaps in the Roman Period), mainly for its fibre, which was used to make sails, ropes, fishing nets and clothes, as well as for the oil from hempseed. Hemp cultivation may have reached a peak during the early 16th century, when Henry VIII decreed that increased hemp production was required to supply the expanding navy.33 Evidence for the locations where
the crop was cultivated and processed is available in several different forms, including written evidence in parish records and government reports, place-name evidence (e.g. Hempholme and some instances of Hempstead), and features on old maps, such as Hempisfield (hemp field).
Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893-94: A Critical Review
Oriana Josseau Kalant
The International Journal of the Addictions, 7(1), pp. 77-96, 1972
https://sci-hub.tw/10.3109/10826087209026763
Despite various attempts by the British authorities to regulate the use of hemp drugs in India, the matter had been left largely in the hands of provincial governments until the end of the 19th century. Laws and practices therefore varied widely from one region to another. In response to questions in the British Parliament, a Commission was set up in 1893 to examine the situation in Bengal, but on the initiative of the Governor General the scope of the inquiry was broadened to include the whole of British India. The present review consists of a summary of those sections of the Report which are of most interest to present day readers, followed by a critical appraisal of the Report and of its relevance to modern issues connected with cannabis use
Results of molecular analysis of an archaeological hemp(Cannabis sativa L.) DNA sample from North West China
Ashutosh Mukherjee, Satyesh Chandra Roy, S. De Bera, Hong-En Jiang, Xiao Li, Cheng-Sen Li, Subir Bera.
Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 55(4):481-485 · June 2008
DOI: 10.1007/s10722-008-9343-9
"Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivation and utilization is an ancient practice to human civilization. There are some controversies on the origin and subsequent spread of this species. Ancient plant DNA has proven to be a powerful tool to solve phylogenetic problems. In this study, ancient DNA was extracted from an archaeological specimen of Cannabis sativa associated with archaeological human remains from China. Ribosomal and Cannabis specific chloroplast DNA regions were PCR amplified. Sequencing of a species-specific region and subsequent comparison with published sequences were performed. Successful amplification, sequencing and sequence comparison with published data suggested the presence of hemp specific DNA in the archeological specimen. The role of Humulus japonicus Sieb. et Zucc. in the evolution of Cannabis is also indicated. The identification of ancient DNA of 2500 years old C.sativa sample showed that C.sativa races might have been introduced into China from the European–Siberian center of diversity."
Sedimentary cannabinol tracks the history of hemp retting
Marlène Lavrieux, Jérémy Jacob, Jean-Robert Disnar, Jean-Gabriel Bréheret, Claude Le Milbeau,Yannick Miras, and Valérie Andrieu-Ponel
Geology 41(7):751-754 July 2013
doi:10.1130/G34073.1 |
Hemp (Cannabis sp.) has been a fundamental plant for the development of human societies. Its fibers have long been used for textiles and rope making, which requires prior stem retting. This process is essential for extracting fi bers from the stem of the plant, but can adversely affect the quality of surface waters. The history of human activities related to hemp (its domestication, spread, and processing) is frequently reconstructed from seeds and pollen detected in archaeological sites or in sedimentary archives, but this method does not always make it possible to ascertain whether retting took place. Hemp is also known to contain phytocannabinoids, a type of chemicals that is specific to the plant. Here we report on the detection of one of these chemicals, cannabinol (CBN), preserved in a sediment record from a lake in the French Massif Central covering the past 1800 yr. The presence of this molecule in the sedimentary record is related to retting. Analysis of the evolution of CBN concentrations shows that hemp retting was a significant activity in the area until ca. A.D. 1850. These findings, supported by pollen analyses and historical data, show that this novel sedimentary tracer can help to better constrain past impacts of human activities on the environment
Siberian Princess reveals her 2,500 year old tattoos
The Siberian Times
https://siberiantimes.com/culture/ot...r-old-tattoos/
The ancient mummy of a mysterious young woman, known as the Ukok Princess, is finally returning home to the Altai Republic this month.
She is to be kept in a special mausoleum at the Republican National Museum in capital Gorno-Altaisk, where eventually she will be displayed in a glass sarcophagus to tourists.
For the past 19 years, since her discovery, she was kept mainly at a scientific institute in Novosibirsk, apart from a period in Moscow when her remains were treated by the same scientists who preserve the body of Soviet founder Vladimir Lenin.
To mark the move 'home', The Siberian Times has obtained intricate drawings of her remarkable tattoos, and those of two men, possibly warriors, buried near her on the remote Ukok Plateau, now a UNESCO world cultural and natural heritage site, some 2,500 metres up in the Altai Mountains in a border region close to frontiers of Russia with Mongolia, China and Kazakhstan.
Reconstruction of a warrior's tattoos, who was discovered on the same plateau as the 'Princess'. All drawings of tattoos, here and below, were made by Elena Shumakova, Institute of Archeology and Ethnography, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Science
They are all believed to be Pazyryk people - a nomadic people described in the 5th century BC by the Greek historian Herodotus - and the colourful body artwork is seen as the best preserved and most elaborate ancient tattoos anywhere in the world
Some Historical Aspects of Marijuana.
Winek, C. L.
Clinical Toxicology, 10(2), 243–253.(1977).
doi:10.3109/1556365770898796
Marijuana, by whatever species of Cannabis it is called, has been known to science and medicine for almost 5000 years. It is reported to have been contained in the Chinese Emperor Nuna' s Herbal dated 2737 B.C. It was not given the name Cannabis sativa L. until Linnaeus named it in 1753 A.D. In searching some of the older Materia Medica texts and journals, one finds reference to the medicinal uses of the plant and its products. In the 1868 edition (3rd) of Materia Medica for the Use of Students (Published by Lindsay & Blakiston, Philadelphia) by John B. Biddle, M.D. of the Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia the following is given on pp. 66-67:
Spiritual Benefit from Cannabis
Frederick J. Heide, Tai Chang, Natalie Porter, Eric Edelson, Joseph C. Walloch
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2021.1941443
Like many mind-altering plants, cannabis has been part of spiritual practices for thousands of years. It has deep roots in Hinduism, Islam, Rastafarianism, and indigenous traditions in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere. Yet almost no attention has been given to how contemporary adults employ it spiritually. A sample of 1087 participants (mean age = 38.9) completed an online survey assessing their use of cannabis and other substances, as well as spiritual and psychological characteristics. Spiritual benefit from cannabis was reported by 66.1% of the sample, and 5.5% reported it had sometimes been a spiritual hindrance. A MANOVA showed that those who reported spiritual benefit differed significantly from those who did not on several outcome variables, and a post hoc descriptive discriminant analysis revealed that expansiveness motivation, non-theistic daily spiritual experience, meditation frequency, and two mindfulness facets contributed most to differentiating the two groups. The majority of the sample (63%) was free of cannabis use disorder. Compared to disordered groups, the non-disordered group was significantly older and scored lower on experiential avoidance, psychological distress, and several motives for use. Results suggest that spiritual motives for cannabis use may be widespread. Implications for future research on spiritual use of cannabis are discussed.
No Pdf
Taming Cannabis: Drugs and Empire in Nineteenth-Century France
David A. Guba
Book, Amazon
Despite having the highest rates of cannabis use in the continent, France enforces the most repressive laws against the drug in all of Europe. Perhaps surprisingly, France was once the epicentre of a global movement to medicalize cannabis, specifically hashish, in the treatment of disease. In Taming Cannabis David Guba examines how nineteenth-century French authorities routinely blamed hashish consumption, especially among Muslim North Africans, for behaviour deemed violent and threatening to the social order. This association of hashish with violence became the primary impetus for French pharmacists and physicians to tame the drug and deploy it in the homeopathic treatment of mental illness and epidemic disease during the 1830s and 1840s. Initially heralded as a wonder drug capable of curing insanity,
Find Pdf
The Ancient Cultivation of Hemp
H. Godwin
Antiquity Volume 41, Issue 161 March 1967 , pp. 42-49 doi:10.1017/S0003598X00038928
THE discovery in a long pollen diagram from East Anglia of a substantial curve for a pollen-grain referable to Cannabis sativa, L., the Indian hemp, raised the hope that we might, through palynology, have the means of tracing the history of cultivation of this important and sinister economic plant in England and in Western Europe. It was clearly essential that pollen-analytic evidence should be related fully to existing historical and archaeological knowledge, and aided by a notice in this journal (ANTIQUITY, 1964, 287), and by the notable kindness of a great many academic colleagues, I have put together a condensed historical account of the plant in antiquity as preface to a description of the pollen-analytic data.
The oldest archeological data evidencing the relationship of Homo sapiens with psychoactive plants: A worldwide overview
GIORGIO SAMORINI
Journal of Psychedelic Studies
DOI: 10.1556/2054.2019.008
Modern sophisticated archeometric instruments are increasingly capable of detecting the presence of psychoactive plant sources in archeological contexts, testifying the antiquity of humanity’s search for altered states of consciousness.
The purpose of this article is to provide a general picture of these findings, covering the main psychoactive plant sources of the world, and identifying the most ancient dates so far evidenced by archeology. This review is based on the archeological literature identifying the presence of psychoactive plant sources, relying on original research documents. The research produced two main results: (a) a systematization of the types of archeological evidence that testify the relationship between Homo sapiens and these psychoactive sources, subdivided into direct evidence (i.e., material findings, chemical, and genetic) and indirect evidence (i.e., anthropophysical, iconographic, literary, and paraphernalia); and (b) producing a list of the earliest known dates of the relationship of H. sapiens with the main psychoactive plant sources. There appears to be a general diffusion of the use of plant drugs from at least the Neolithic period (for the Old World) and the pre-Formative period (for the Americas). These dates should not to be understood as the first use of these materials, instead they refer to the oldest dates currently determined by either direct or indirect archeological evidence. Several of these dates are likely to be modified back in time by future excavations and finds
The Origin and Use of Cannabis in Eastern Asia
HuI-LIN LI
ECONOMIC BOTANY 28: 293-301. July-September, 1974.
DOI:10.1007/BF02861426
Cannabis sativa is one of man's oldest cultivated plants. Botanically it is distinct
from all other plants and readily recognized. Yet among individual plants it is
extremely variable. It now grows spontaneously in great abundance and ubiquity.
While most botanists consider the plant monotypic, some regard it as consisting of more than one species and a number of varieties, and so propose several different systems of classification. The systematics of this plant still awaits classification by further botanical studies. Cannabis is generally believed to be an Asiatic plant. There is no concerted agreement among botanists as to where the plant originally grew wild and where its cultivation first began. Estimates range within the wide span of temperate Asia from the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea through western and central Asia to eastern Asia. There is no easy way to distinguish between wild and spontaneous or adventitious, and semi-cultivated or cultivated plants. Therefore, much remains to be done in determining the geographical origin of the plant. These difficulties in classification and origin arise from the long and close association of Cannabis with man. Man has caused its extreme variations and wide dispersion. It will no longer suffice to study the plant itself alone. The influence of man must be considered side by side with the botanical facts in order to unveil the complex nature of this plant.ature of this plant.
The origins of cannabis smoking: Chemical residue evidence from the first millennium BCE in the Pamirs
Meng Ren, Zihua Tang, Xinhua Wu, Robert Spengler, Hongen Jiang, Yimin Yang, and Nicole Boivin
Science Advances 12 Jun 2019:
Vol. 5, no. 6, eaaw1391
DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aaw1391
Cannabis is one of the oldest cultivated plants in East Asia, grown for grain and fiber as well as for recreational,
medical, and ritual purposes. It is one of the most widely used psychoactive drugs in the world today, but little is
known about its early psychoactive use or when plants under cultivation evolved the phenotypical trait of
increased specialized compound production. The archaeological evidence for ritualized consumption of cannabis
is limited and contentious. Here, we present some of the earliest directly dated and scientifically verified evidence
for ritual cannabis smoking. This phytochemical analysis indicates that cannabis plants were burned in wooden
braziers during mortuary ceremonies at the Jirzankal Cemetery (ca. 500 BCE) in the eastern Pamirs region. This
suggests cannabis was smoked as part of ritual and/or religious activities in western China by at least 2500 years
ago and that the cannabis plants produced high levels of psychoactive compounds.
*The Pharmacohistory of Cannabis Sativa
Raphael Mechoulam
In book: Cannabinoids as Therapeutic Agents June 2019
DOI: 10.1201/9780429260667-1
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...annabis_Sativa
Cannabis sativa L. was one of the first plants to be used by man for fiber, food, medicine, and in social and religious rituals. Several names for cannabis were used, mostly associated with the term azallu. The Scythians were a tribe of violent warriors who ruled the Crimea and, at different times, parts of southern Russia, the Balkans, Anatolia, and the Middle East around 700 B.C. The Middle Ages in Europe stayed their course, as regarded medical and not-somedical use of cannabis, till the 19th century. Cannabis was part of the religious lore of the Aryans, a nomad tribe, which invaded India from the north circa 2000 B.C. The Indians had a much better understanding of cannabis than the Europeans. In various parts of India cannabis was used for a large number of diseases and to improve the physical and mental states of the user. The use in leprosy in China deserves further investigation.
The Religious and Medicinal Uses of Cannabisin China, India and Tibet.
Touw, M.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 13(1), 23–34.(1981).
doi:10.1080/02791072.1981.10471447
The earliest trace of cannabis use is an archaeological find of hemp textile in China dating fro m 4000 B.C. (Li & Lin 1974 ). Hemp thread and rope fro m 3000 B.C. have also been found in Chinese-occupied Turkestan (Fisher 19 75 ). The Rh-Ya (50 0 B.C., but pointing back many centuries earlier) mention s its use for fiber (Bouquet 1950), as do the Shih-Ching (l Oth-7th centuries B.C.), the Li-Chi (l 00 B.C.) an d the Chou Li (c. 200 H.C.) (Li & Lin 1974). A grain crop was obtained fro m the achene as well, according to the latter three classics ( Li & Lin 1974 ), though the earliest archaeological evidence of this use found to date is fro m the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.). Cannabis grain was not merely an auxiliary crop, for in ancient times it was counted as one of t he "five grains," together with rice, barley, millet and soy beans (Li 197 5). To this day a large seeded variety of hemp grows in the far northeast of China, which may well be a relict of its use for grain. Alt ho ugh cannabis ceased to be an important food in China just before the beginning of the Christian era due to the introduction of new crops (Keng 1974), it is still a source of cooking oil and grain in parts of Nepal.
‘Tis in our nature: taking the human-cannabis relationship seriously in health science and public policy.
Aggarwal, S. K.
Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4. (2013).
doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00006
To find clearheaded scientific perspective on cannabis use through the prevailing thick smokescreen requires recognizing just what sort of smoke obscures our better understanding. In the United States, in large part, the smokescreen is made up of culture war-charged political rhetoric and obstructionism from those in positions of authority setting up a prejudicial ideological framing for cannabis use. National leaders throughout the twentieth century have taken opportunities afforded by high office or its pursuit to publicly opine on the dangers of cannabis, such as when then-Presidential candidate Ronald Reagan famously stated in 1980 that “leading medical researchers are coming to the conclusion that marijuana, pot, grass, whatever you want to call it, is probably the most dangerous drug in the United States and we haven’t begun to find out all of the ill-effects. But they are permanent ill-effects. The loss of memory, for example Grass (1999).” Not only is such rhetoric overly simplistic, it also obscures and distorts pre-existing facts. In this particular case, Reagan’s statement obscures the fact that the American Medical Association testified in 1937 on record to Congress that, after nearly 100 years of professional experience in Western medical practice with over 2000 prescribable marketed cannabis preparations (Antique Cannabis Museum, 2012), practitioners found that cannabis had an irreplaceable therapeutic role as an aid in the remembering of old and long-forgotten memories in psychotherapy patients (U.S. Congress, 1937). When in office, Reagan’s first drug czar, Carlton Turner, blamed cannabis use for young people’s involvement in “anti-military, anti-nuclear power, anti-big business, anti-authority demonstrations” (Schlosser, 1997), all dissenting positions toward government initiatives. Such clear scapegoating rhetoric has roots in the government’s racialized Reefer Madness campaign of the 1930s which linked cannabis use in Blacks, Latinos, jazz musicians, and juvenile delinquents to racial miscegenation and homicidal mania
Upper Palaeolithic fibre technology: interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Adovasio, J. M., Soffer, O., & Klíma, B.
Antiquity, 70(269), 526–534.(1996).
doi:10.1017/s0003598x0008368x
The later Palaeolithic sites of Moravia, the region of the Czech Republic west of Prague and north of Vienna, continue to provide remarkable new materials. To the art mobilier for which Dolni V6stonice and Pavlov have been celebrated, there has recently been added the technologies of groundstone and ceramics - and now woven materials, interlaced basketry or textiles, again of a kind one expects only from a quite later era.
The Question of Cannabis: Cannabis Bibliography
Written by United Nations. Commission on Narcotic Drugs 1965
https://books.google.es/books?id=xXr...page&q&f=false
1860 article BIB
If any articles fit into more than one subject I will just post it in both, in this case I will put it in Classification/Taxonomy but if people also think it should go in others I can do that, I have maybe 1,000+ papers to sort and categorize by subject so I am trying to keep it easy for my self. If anyone has suggestions for additional subjects on any specific paper please tell me. ANY NEWLY ADDED PAPER I WILL POST THE TITLE IN RED FOR AT LEAST 3 MONTHS TO MAKE IT EASIER TO SEE WHAT HAS RECENTLY BEEN ADDED TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY
Last edited:
livetola te geranyltransferase activity and the genes for corresponding cannabinoid synthases7,8 . Furthermore, we established a biosynthetic approach that harnessed the promiscuity of several pathway genes to produce cannabinoid analogues. Feeding different fatty acids to our engineered strains yielded cannabinoid analogues with modifications in the part of the molecule that is known to alter receptor binding affinity and potency9 . We also demonstrated that our biological system could be complemented by simple synthetic chemistry to further expand the accessible chemical space. Our work presents a platform for the production of natural and unnatural cannabinoids that will allow for more rigorous study of these compounds and could be used in the development of treatments for a variety of human health problems.
2022 
