Marijuana Botany by Robert Connell Clarke

[Milonix420]

Latitude and Photoperiod

Change in photoperiod is the factor that usually trig-
gers the developmental stages of Cannabis. Photoperiod
and seasonal cycles are determined by latitude. The most
even photoperiods and mildest seasonal variations are
found near the equator, and the most widely fluctuating
photoperiods and most radical seasonal variations are found
in polar and high altitude locations. Areas in intermediate
latitudes show more pronounced seasonal variation depend-
ing on their distance from the equator or height in altitude.
A graph of light cycles based on latitude is helpful in ex-
ploring the maturation and cycles of Cannabis from various
latitudes and the genetic adaptations of strains to their
native environments.
The wavy lines follow the changes in photoperiod
(daylength) for two years at various latitudes. Follow, for
example, the photoperiod for 400 north latitude (Northern
California) which begins along the left-hand margin with a
15-hour photoperiod on June 21 (summer solstice). As the
months progress to the right, the days get shorter and the
line representing photoperiod slopes downward. During
July the daylength decreases to 14 hours and Cannabis
plants begin to flower and produce THC. (Increased THC
production is represented by an increase in the size of the
dots along the line of photoperiod.) As the days get
shorter the plants flower more profusely and produce more
THC until a peak period is reached during October and
November. After this time the photoperiod drops below
10 hours and THC production slows. High-THC plants may
continue to develop until the winter solstice (shortest day
of the year, around December 21) if they are protected
from frost. At this point a new vegetative light cycle starts
and THC production ceases. New seedlings are planted
when the days begin to get long (12-14 hours) and warm
from March to May. Farther north at 600 latitude the day-
length changes more radically and the growing season is
shorter. These conditions do not favor THC production.
Light cycles and seasons vary as one approaches the
equator. Near 200 north latitude (Hawaii, India, and Thai-
land where most of the finest drug Cannabis originates),
the photoperiod never varies out of the range critical for
THC production, between 10 and 14 hours. The light
cycle at 200 north latitude starts at the summer solstice
when the photoperiod is just a little over 13 hours. This
means that a long season exists that starts earlier and
finishes later than at higher latitudes. However, because the
photoperiod is never too long to induce flowering, Canna-
bis may also be grown in a short season from December
through March or April (90 to 120 days). Strains from
these latitudes are often not as responsive to photoperiod
change, and flowering seems strongly age-determined as
well as light determined. Most strains of Cannabis will begin
to flower when they are 60 days old if photoperiod does
not exceed 13 hours. At 200 latitude, the photoperiod
never exceeds 14 hours, and easily induced strains may
begin flowering at nearly any time during the year.
Equatorial areas gain and lose daylength twice during
the year as the sun passes north and south of the equator,
resulting in two identical photoperiodic seasons. Rainfall
snd altitude determine the growing season of each area,
but at some locations along the equator it is possible to
grow two crops of fully mature Cannabis in one year. By
locating a particular latitude on the chart, and noting local
dates for the last and first frosts and wet and dry seasons,
the effective growing season may be determined. If an area
has too short an effective growing season for drug Canna-
bis, a greenhouse or other shelter from cold, rainy condi-
tions is used. The timing of planting and length of the
growing season in these marginal conditions can also be
determined from this chart.

 

[Milonix420]

For instance, assume a researcher wishes to grow a
crop of Cannabis near Durban, South Africa, at 300 south
latitude. Consulting the graph of maturation cycles will
reveal that a long-photoperiod season, adequate for the
maturation of drug Cannabis, exists from October through
June. Local weather conditions indicate that average tem-
perature ranges from 60~ to 80~ F. and annual precipitation
from 30 to 50 inches. Early storms from the east in June
could damage plants and some sort of storm protection
might be necessary. Any estimates made from this chart
sre generally accurate for photoperiod; however, local
weather conditions are always taken into account.
Combination and simplification of the earth's climatic
bands where Cannabis is grown yields an equatorial zone,
north and south subtropical zones, north and south tem-
perate zones, arctic and antarctic zones. A discussion of
the maturation cycle for drug Cannabis in each zone
follows.

Equatorial Zone - (15 south latitude to 15 north latitude)
At the equator the sun is high in the sky all year long.
The sun is directly overhead twice a year at the equinoxes,
March 22 and September 22, as it passes to the north and
then the south. The days get shortest twice a year on each
equinox. As a result, the equatorial zone has two times
during the year when floral induction can take place and
two distinct seasons, These seasons may overlap but they
are usually five to six months long and unless the weather
forbids, the fields may be used twice a year. Colombia,
southern India, Thailand, and Malawi all lie on the fringes
of the equatorial zone between 10 and 15 latitude. It is
interesting to note that few if any areas of commercial
Cannabis cultivation, other than Colombia, lie within the
heart of the equatorial zone. This could be because most
areas along the equator or very near to it are extremely
humid at lower altitudes, so it may be impossible to find a
dry enough place to grow one crop of Cannabis, much less
two. Wild Cannabis occurs in many equatorial areas but it
is of relatively low quality for fiber or drug production.
Under cultivation, however, equatorial Cannabis has great
potential for drug production.

 

[Milonix420]

Northern and Southern Subtropical Zones - (15 to 30
north and south latitudes)
The northern subtropical zone is one of the largest
Cannabis producing areas in the world, while the southern
subtropical zone has little Cannabis. These areas usually
have a long season from February-March through October-
December in the northern hemisphere and from September-
October through March-June in the southern hemisphere.
A short season may also exist from December or January
through March or April in the northern hemisphere, span-
ning from 90 to 120 days. In Hawaii, Cannabis cultivators
sometimes make use of a third short season from June
through September or September through December, but
these short seasons actually break up the long subtropical
season during which some of the world's most potent
Cannabis is grown. Southeast Asia, Hawaii, Mexico, Ja-
maica, Pakistan, Nepal, and India are all major Cannabis-
producing areas located in the northern subtropical zone.

North and South Temperate Zones - (30 to 60 north and
south latitudes)
The temperate zones have one medium to long season
stretching from March-May through September-December
in the northern hemisphere and from September-November
through March-June in the southern hemisphere. Central
China, Korea, Japan, United States, southern Europe,
Morocco, Turkey, Lebanon, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
India, and Kashmir are all in the north temperate zone.
Many of these nations are producers of large amounts of
fiber as well as drug Cannabis. The south temperate zone
includes only the southern portions of Australia, South
America, and Africa. Some Cannabis grows in all three of
these areas, but none of them are well known for the culti-
vation of drug Cannabis.

Arctic and Antarctic Zones - (60 to 70 north and south
latitudes)
The arctic and antarctic zones are characterized by a
short, harsh growing season that is not favorable for the
growth of Cannabis, The arctic season begins during the
very long days of June or July, as soon as the ground thaws,
and continues until the first freezes of September or Oc-
tober. The photoperiod is very long when the seedlings
appear, but the days rapidly get shorter and by September
the plants begin to flower. Plants often get quite large in
these areas, but they do not get a long enough season to
mature completely and the cultivation of drug Cannabis is
not practical without a greenhouse. Parts of Russia, Alaska,
Canada, and northern Europe are within the arctic zone
and only small stands of escaped fiber and drug Cannabis
grow naturally. Cultivated drug strains are grown in Alaska,
Canada, and northern Europe in limited quantities but
little is grown on a commercial scale. Rapidly maturing,
acclimatized hybrid strains from temperate North America
are probably the best suited for growth in this area. Fiber
strains also grow well in some arctic areas. Breeding pro-
grams with Russian Cannabis ruderalis could yield very
short season drug strains.
It becomes readily apparent that most of the drug
Cannabis occurs in the northern subtropical and northern
temperate zones of the world. It is striking that there are
many unutilized areas suitable for the cultivation of drug
Cannabis the world over. It is also readily apparent that the
equatorial zone and subtropical zones have the advantage
of an extra full or partial season for the cultivation of
Cannabis.

 

[Milonix420]

Strains that have become adapted to their native lati-
tude will tend to flower and mature under domestic culti-
vation in much the same pattern as they would in their
native conditions. For example, in northern temperate
areas, strains from Mexico (subtropical zone) will usually
completely mature by the end of October while strains
from Colombia (equatorial zone) will usually not mature
until December. By understanding this, strains may be
selected from latitudes similar to the area to be cultivated
so that the chances of growing drug Cannabis to maturity
are maximized. The short season of Hawaii, Mexico, and
other subtropical areas constitutes a separate set of environ-
mental factors (distinct from the long season) that influ-
ence genotype and favor selection of a separate short-
season strain. The maturation characteristics can vary
greatly between these two strains because of the length of
the season and differences in response to photoperiod. For
that reason, it is usually necessary to determine if Hawail
and California strains have been bred specifically for either
the short or long season, or if they are used indiscriminately
for both seasons. Sometimes the only information available
is what season the ~1 seed plant was grown. It may not be
practical to grow a long-season strain from Hawaii in a
temperate growing area, but a short season strain might
do very well.

 

[Milonix420]

Moon Cycles

Since ancient times man has observed the effect of
the moon on living organisms, especially his crops. Planting
and harvest dates based on moon cycles are still found in
the Old Farmer's Almanac. The moon takes 28 to 29 days to
completely orbit the earth. This cycle is divided into four
one-week phases. It starts as the new moon waxes (begins
to enlarge) for a week until the quarter moon and another
week until the moon is full. Then the waning (shrinking)
cycle begins and the moon passes back for two weeks
through another quarter to reach the beginning of the cycle
with a new moon. Most cultivators agree that the best time
for planting is on the waxing moon, and the best time to
harvest is on the waning moon. Exact new moons, full
moons, and quarter moons are avoided as these are times of
interplanetary stress. Planting, germinating, grafting, and
layering are most favored during phases 1 and 2. The best
time is a few days before the full moon. Phases 3 and 4 are
most beneficial for harvesting and pruning.
Root growth seems accelerated at the time of the new
moon, possibly as a response to increased gravitational pull
from the alignment of sun and moon. It also seems that
floral cluster formation is slowed by the full moon. Strong,
full moonlight is on the borderline of being enough light
to cease floral induction entirely. Although this never hap-
pens, if a plant is just about to begin floral growth, it may
be delayed a week by a few nights of bright moonlight.
Conversely, plants begin floral growth during the dark
nights of the new moon. More research is needed to explain
the mysterious effects of moon cycles on Cannabis

Floral Maturation

The individual pistillate calyxes and the composite
floral clusters change as they mature. External changes
indicate that internal biochemical metabolic changes are
also occurring. When the external changes can be con-
nected with the invisible internal metabolic changes, then
the cultivator is in a better position to decide when to har
vest floral clusters. With years of experience this becomes
intuition, but there are general correlations which can put
the process in more objective terms.
The calyxes first appear as single, thin, tubular, green
sheaths surrounding an ovule at the basal attached end with
a pair of thin white, yellowish green, or purple pistils at-
tached to the ovule and protruding from the tip fold of
the calyx. As the flower begins to age and mature, the
pistils grow longer and the calyx enlarges slightly to its
full length. Next, the calyx begins to swell as resin secre-
tion increases, and the pistils reach their peak of reproduc-
tive ripeness. From this point on, the pistils begin to swell
and darken slightly, and the tips may begin to curl and
turn reddish brown. At this stage the pistillate flower is
past its reproductive peak, and it is not likely that it will
produce a viable seed if pollinated. Without pollination the
calyx begins to swell almost as if it had been fertilized and
resin secretion reaches a peak. The pistils eventually wither
and turn a reddish or orange brown. By this time, the
swollen calyx has accumulated an incredible layer of resin,
but secretion has slowed and few fresh terpenes and canna-
binoids are being produced. Falling pistils mark the end of
the developmental cycle of the individual pistillate calyx.
The resins turn opaque and the calyx begins to die.
The biosynthesis of cannabinoids and terpenes paral-
lels the developmental stages of the calyx and associated
resin-producing glandular trichomes. Also, the average de-
velopmental stage of the accumulated individual calyxes
determines the maturational state of the entire floral clus-
ter. Thus, determination of maturational stage and timing
of the harvest is based on the average calyx and resin con-
dition, along with general trends in morphology and devel-
opment of the plant as a whole.
The basic morphological characteristics of floral
maturation are measured by calyx-to-leaf ratio and inter-
node length within floral clusters. Calyx-to-leaf ratios are
highest during the peak floral stage. Later stages are usually
characterized by decreased calyx growth and increased leaf
growth. Internode length is usually very short between
pairs of calyxes in tight dense clusters. At the end of the
maturation cycle, if there is still growth, the internode
length may increase in response to increased humidity and
lowered light conditions. This is most often a sign that the
floral clusters are past their reproductive peak; if so, they
are preparing for rejuvenation and the possibility of re-
growth the following season. At this time nearly all resin
secretion has ceased at temperate latitudes (due to low
temperatures), but may still continue in equatorial and
subtropical areas that have a longer and warmer growing
season. Greenhouses have been used in temperate latitudes
to simulate tropical environments and extend the period of
resin production. It should be remembered that green-
houses also tend to cause a stretched condition in the
floral clusters in response to high humidity, high tempera-
tures, lowered light intensity, and restricted air circulation.
Simulation of the native photoperiod of a certain strain is
achieved through the use of blackout curtains and supple-
mental lighting in a greenhouse or indoor environment. The
localized light cycle particular to a strain may be estimated
from the graph of maturation patterns at various latitudes
(p.124). In this way it is possible to reproduce exotic
foreign environments to more accurately study Cannabis,

 

[Milonix420]

Tight clusters of calyxes and leaves are characteristic
of ripe outdoor Cannabis. Some strains, however, such as
those from Thailand, tend to have longer internodes and
appear airy and stretched. This seems to be a genetically
controlled adaptation to their native environment. Im-
ported ~1 examples from Thailand also have long inter-
nodes in the pistillate floral clusters. Thai strains may not
develop tight floral clusters even in the most arid and ex-
posed conditions; however, this condition is furthered as
rejuvenation begins during autumn days of decreasing
photoperiod.

 

[Milonix420]

Cannabinoid Biosynthesis

Since resin secretion and associated terpenoid and
cannabinoid biosynthesis are at their peak just after the pis-
tils have begun to turn brown but before the calyx stops
growing, it seems obvious that floral clusters should be har-
vested during this time. More subtle variations in terpenoid
and cannabinoid levels also take place within this period of
maximum resin secretion, and these variations influence
the nature of the resin's psychoactive effect.
The cannabinoid ratios characteristic of a strain are
primarily determined by genes, but it must be remembered
that many environmental factors, such as light, tempera-
ture, and humidity, influence the path of a molecule along
the cannabinoid biosynthetic pathway. These environmen-
tal factors can cause an atypical final cannabinoid profile
(cannabinoid levels and ratios). Not all cannabinoid mole-
cules begin their journey through the pathway at the same
time, nor do all of them complete the cycle and turn into
THC molecules simultaneously. There is no magical way to
influence the cannabinoid biosynthesis to favor THC pro-
duction, but certain factors involved in the growth and
maturation of Cannabis do affect final cannabinoid levels,
These factors may be controlled to some extent by proper
selection of mature floral clusters for harvesting, agricul
tural technique, and local environment. In addition to
genetic and seasonal influences, the picture is further modi-
fied by the fact that each individual calyx goes through the
cannabinoid cycle fairly independently and that during
peak periods of resin secretion new flowers are produced
every day and begin their own cycle. This means that at
any given time the ratio of calyx-to-leaf, the average calyx
condition, the condition of the resins, and resultant canna-
binoid ratios indicate which stage the floral cluster has
reached. Since it is difficult for the amateur cultivator to
determine the cannabinoid profile of a floral cluster with-
out chromatographic analysis, this discussion will center
on the known and theoretical correlations between the ex-
ternal characteristics of calyx and resin and internal canna-
binoid profile. A better understanding of these subtle
changes in cannabinoid ratios may be gleaned by observing
the cannabinoid biosynthesis. Focus on the lower left-hand
corner of the chart. Next, follow the chain of reactions
until you find the four isomers of THC acid (tetrahydro-
cannabinolic acid), toward the right side of the page at the
crest of the reaction sequence, and realize that there are
several steps in a long series of reactions that precede and
follow the formation of THC acids, the major psycho-
active cannabinoids. Actually, THC acid and the other
necessary cannabinoid acids are not psychoactive until they
decarboxylate (lose an acidic carboxyl group [COOHI).
It is the cannabinoid acids which move along the biosyn-
thetic pathway, and these acids undergo the strategic reac-
tions that determine the position of any particular canna-
binoid molecule along the pathway. After the resins are
secreted by the glandular trichome they begin to harden
and the cannabinoid acids begin to decarboxylate. Any
remaining cannabinoid acids are decarboxylated by heat
within a few days after harvesting. Other THC acids with
shorter side-chains also occur in certain strains of Cannabis.
Several are known to be psychoactive and many more are
suspected of psychoactivity. The shorter propyl (three-
carb on) and methyl (one-carbon) side-chain homologs
(similarly shaped molecules) are shorter acting than pen tyl
(five-carbon) THCs and may account for some of the quick,
flashy effects noted by some marijuana users. We will
focus on the pentyl pathway but it should be noted that
the propyl and methyl pathways have homologs at nearly
every step along the pentyl pathway and their synthesis is
basically identical.

 

[Milonix420]

The first step in the pentyl cannabinoid biosynthetic
pathway is the combination of olivetolic acid with geranyl
pyrophosphate. Both of these molecules are derived from
terpenes, and it is readily apparent that the biosynthetic
route of the aromatic terpenoids may be a clue to forma-
tion of the cannabinoids. The union of these two molecules
forms CBG acid (cannabigerolic acid) which is the basic
cannabinoid precursor molecule. CBG acid may be con-
verted to CBGM (CBG acid monomethyl ether), or a
hydroxyl group (OH) attaches to the geraniol portion of the
molecule forming hydroxy-CBG acid. Through the forma-
tion of a transition-state molecule, either CBC acid (canna-
bichromenic acid) or CBD acid (cannabidiolic acid) is
formed. CBD acid is the precursor to the THC acids, and,
although CBD is only mildly psychoactive by itself, it may
act with THC to modify the psychoactive effect of the
THC in a sedative way. CBC is also mildly psychoactive
and may interact synergistically with THC to alter the
psychoactive effect (Turner et al. 1975). Indeed, CBD may
suppress the effect of THC and CBC may potentiate the
effect of THC, although this has not yet been proven. All
of the reactions along the cannabinoid biosynthetic path-
way are enzyme-controlled but are affected by environ-
mental conditions.

Conversion of CBD acid to THC acid is the single
most important reaction with respect to psychoactivity in
the entire pathway and the one about which we know the
most. Personal communication with Raphael Mechoulam
has centered around the role of ultraviolet light in the bio-
synthesis of THC acids and minor cannabinoids. In the
laboratory, Mechoulam has converted CBD acid to THC
acids by exposing a solution of CBD acid in n-hexane to
ultraviolet light of 235-285 nm. for up to 48 hours. This
reaction uses atmospheric oxygen molecules (02) and is
irreversible; however, the yield of the conversion is only
about 15% THC acid, and some of the products formed in
the laboratory experiment do not occur in living specimens.
Four types of isomers or slight variations of THC acids
(THCA) exist. Both Delta1-THCA and Delta6-THCA are naturally
occurring isomers of THCA resulting from the positions of
the double bond on carbon 1 or carbon 6 of the geraniol
portion of the molecule They have approximately the
same psychoactive effect; however, Delta1-THC acid is about
four times more prevalent than Delta6-THC acid in most
strains. Also Alpha and Beta forms of Delta1-THC acid and Delta6-THC
acid exist as a result of the juxtaposition of the hydrogen
(H) and the carboxyl (COOH) groups on the olivetolic acid
portion of the molecule It is suspected that the psycho-
activity of the a and ~ forms of the THC acid molecules
probably does not vary, but this has not been proven.
Subtle differences in psychoactivity not detected in animals
by laboratory instruments, but often discussed by mari-
juana aficionados, could be attributed to additional syner-
gistic effects of the four isomers of THC acid. Total psycho-
activity is attributed to the ratios of the primary canna-
binoids of CBC, CBD, THC and CBN; the ratios of methyl,
propyl, and pentyl homologs of these cannabinoids; and
the isomeric variations of each of these cannabinoids.
Myriad subtle combinations are sure to exist. Also, ter-
penoid and other aromatic compounds might suppress or
potentiate the effects of THCs.

 

[Milonix420]

Environmental conditions influence cannabinoid bio-
synthesis by modifying enzymatic systems and the resul-
tant potency of Cannabis. High altitude environments are
often more arid and exposed to more intense sunlight than
lower environments. Recent studies by Mobarak et al.
(1978) of Cannabis grown in Afghanistan at 1,300 meters
(4,350 feet) elevation show that significantly more propyl
cannabinoids are formed than the respective pentyl homo-
logs. Other strains from this area of Asia have also exhibited
the presence of propyl cannabinoids, but it cannot be dis-
counted that altitude might influence which path of canna-
binoid biosynthesis is favored. Aridity favors resin produc-
tion and total cannabinoid production; however, it is un-
known whether arid conditions promote THC production
specifically. It is suspected that increased ultraviolet radi-
ation might affect cannabinoid production directly. Ultra-
violet light participates in the biosynthesis of THC acids
from CBD acids, the conversion of CBC acids to CCY acids,
and the conversion of CBD acids to CBS acids. However, it
is unknown whether increased ultraviolet light might shift
cannabinoid synthesis from pentyl to propyl pathways or
influence the production of THC acid or CBC acid instead
of CBD acid.
The ratio of THC to CBD has been used in chemotype
determination by Small and others. The genetically deter-
mined inability of certain strains to convert CBD acid to
THC acid makes them a member of a fiber chemotype, but
if a strain has the genetically determined ability to convert
CBD acid to THC acid then it is considered a drug strain.
It is also interesting to note that Turner and Hadley (1973)
discovered an African strain with a very high THC level and
no CBD although there are fair amounts of CBC acid
present in the strain. Turner* states that he has seen several
strains totally devoid of CBD, but he has never seen a
strain totally devoid of THC. Also, many early authors
confused CBC with CBD in analyzed samples because of
the proximity of their peaks on gas liquid chromatograph
(GLC) results. If the biosynthetic pathway needs alteration
to include an enzymatically controlled system involving
the direct conversion of hydroxy-CBG acid to THC acid
through allylic rearrangement of hydroxy-CBG acid and
cyclization of the rearranged intermediate to THC acid, as
Turner and Hadley (1973) suggest, then CBD acid would
be bypassed in the cycle and its absence explained. Another
possibility is that, since CBC acid is formed from the same
symmetric intermediate that is allylically rearranged before
forming CBD acid, CBC acid may be the accumulated inter-
mediate, the reaction may be reversed, and through the
symmetric intermediate and the usual allylic rearrangement
CBD acid would be formed but directly converted to THC
acid by a similar enzyme system to that which reversed the
formation of CBC acid. If this happened fast enough no
CBD acid would be detected. It is more likely, however,
that CBDA in drug strains is converted directly to THCA as
soon as it is formed and no CBD builds up. Also Turner,
Hemphill, and Mahlberg (1978) found that CBC acid was
contained in the tissues of Cannabis but not in the resin
secreted by the glandular trichomes. In any event, these
possible deviations from the accepted biosynthetic path-
way provide food for thought when trying to decipher the
mysteries of Cannabis strains and varieties of psychoactive
effect.
Returning to the more orthodox version of the canna-
binoid biosynthesis, the role of ultraviolet light should be
reemphasized. It seems apparent that ultraviolet light, nor-
mally supplied in abundance by sunlight, takes part in the
conversion of CBD acid to THC acids. Therefore, the lack

 

[Milonix420]

*Carlton Thrner 1979: personal communication.
of ultraviolet light in indoor growing situations could
account for the limited psychoactivity of Cannabis grown
under artificial lights. Light energy has been collected and
utilized by the plant in a long series of reactions resulting
in the formation of THC acids. Farther along the pathway
begins the formation of degradation products not metabol-
ically produced by the living plant. These cannabinoid
acids are formed through the progressive degradation of
THC acids to CBN acid (cannabinolic acid) and other can-
nabinoid acids. The degradation is accomplished primarily
by heat and light and is not enzymatically controlled by
the plant. CBN is also suspected of synergistic modification
of the psychoactivity of the primary cannabinoids, THCs.
The cannabinoid balance between CBC, CBD, THC, and
CBN is determined by genetics and maturation. THC pro-
duction is an ongoing process as long as the glandular tri-
chome remains active. Variations in the level of THC in the
same trichome as it matures are the result of THC acid
being broken down to CBN acid while CBD acid is being
converted to THC acid. If the rate of THC biosynthesis
exceeds the rate of THC breakdown, the THC level in the
trichome rises; if the breakdown rate is faster than the rate
of biosynthesis, the THC level drops. Clear or slightly am-
ber transparent resin is a sign that the glandular trichome
is still active. As soon as resin secretion begins to slow, the
resins will usually polymerize and harden. During the late
floral stages the resin tends to darken to a transparent
amber color. If it begins to deteriorate, it first turns trans-
lucent and then opaque brown or white. Near-freezing
temperatures during maturation will often result in opaque
white resins. During active secretion, THC acids are con-
stantly being formed from CBD acid and breaking down
into CBN acid.

Harvest Timing

With this dynamic picture of the biosynthesis and
degradation of THC acids as a frame of reference, the logic
behind harvesting at a specific time is easier to understand.
The usual aim of timing the moment of harvest is to ensure
high THC levels modified by just the proper amounts of
CBC, CBD and CBN, along with their propyl homologs, to
approximate the desired psychoactive effect. Since THC
acids are being broken down into CBN acid at the same
time they are being made from CBD acid, it is important
to harvest at a time when the production of THC acids is
higher than the degradation of THC acids. Every experi-
enced cultivator inspects a number of indicating factors
and knows when to harvest the desired type of floral clus
ters. Some like to harvest early when most of the pistils are
still viable and at the height of reproductive potential. At
this time the resins are very aromatic and light; the psycho-
active effect is characterized as a light cerebral high (pos-
sibly low CBC and CBD, high THC, low CBN). Others har-
vest as late as possible, desiring a stronger, more resinous
marijuana characterized by a more intense body effect and
an inhibited cerebral effect (high CBC and CB]), high THC,
high CBN). Harvesting and testing several floral clusters
every few days over a period of several weeks gives the
cultivator a set of samples at all stages of maturation and
creates a basis for deciding when to harvest in future sea-
sons. The following is a description of each of the growth
phases as to morphology, terpene aroma, and relative
psychoactivity.

 

[Milonix420]

Premature Floral Stage

At this stage floral development is slightly beyond
primordial and only a few clusters of immature pistillate
flowers appear at the tips of limbs in addition to the pri-
mordial pairs along the main stems. By this stage stem
diameter within the floral clusters is very nearly maximum.
The stems are easily visible between the nodes and form a
strong framework to support future floral development.
Larger vegetative leaves (5-7 leaflets) predominate and
smaller tri-leaflet leaves are beginning to form in the new
floral axis. A few narrow, tapered calyxes may be found
nestled in the leaflets near the stem tips and the fresh
pistils appear as thin, feathery, white filaments stretching
to test the surroundings. During this stage the surface of
the calyxes is lightly covered with fuzzy, hair-like, non-
glandular trichomes, but only a few bulbous and capitate-
sessile glandular trichomes have begun to develop. Resin
secretion is minimal, as indicated by small resin heads and
few if any capitate-stalked, glandular trichomes. There is
no drug yield from plants at the premature stage since THC
production is low, and there is no economic value other
than fiber and leaf. Terpene production starts as the glan-
dular trichomes begin to secrete resin; premature floral
clusters have no terpene aromas or tastes. Total canna-
binoid production is low but simple cannabinoid pheno-
types, based on relative amounts of THC and CBD, may be
determined. By the pre-floral stage the plant has akeady
established its basic chemotype as a fiber or drug strain. A
fiber strain rarely produces more than 2% THC, even under
perfect agricultural conditions. This indicates that a strain
either produces some varying amount of THC (up to 13%)
and little CBD and is termed a drug strain or produces
practically no THC and high CBD and is termed a fiber
strain, This is genetically controlled.
The floral clusters are barely psychoactive at this
stage, and most marijuana smokers classify the reaction as
more an "effect" than a "high." This most likely results
from small amounts of THC as well as trace amounts of
CBC and CBD. CBD production begins when the seedling
is very small. THC production also begins when the seed-
ling is very small, if the plant originates from a drug strain.
However, THC levels rarely exceed 2% until the early
floral stage and rarely produce a "high" until the peak
floral stage.

Early Floral Stage

Floral clusters begin to form as calyx production in-
creases and internode length decreases. Tri-leaflet leaves
are the predominant type and usually appear along the
secondary floral stems within the individual clusters. Many
pairs of calyxes appear along each secondary floral axis and
each pair is subtended by a tri-leaflet leaf. Older pairs of
calyxes visible along the primary floral axis during the pre-
mature stage now begin to swell, the pistils darken as they
lose fertility, and some resin secretion is observed in tri-
chomes along the veins of the calyx. The newly produced
calyxes show few if any capitate-stalked trichomes. As a
result of low resin production, only a slight terpene aroma
and psychoactivity are detectable. The floral clusters are not
ready for harvest at this point. Total cannabinoid produc-
tion has increased markedly over the premature stage but
THC levels (still less than 3%) are not high enough to pro-
duce more than a subtle effect.

 

[Milonix420]

Peak Floral Stage

Elongation growth of the main floral stem ceases at
this stage, and floral clusters gain most of their size through
the addition of more calyxes along the secondary stems
until they cover the primary stem tips in an overlapping
spiral. Small reduced mono-leaflet and tri-leaflet leaves
subtend each pair of calyxes emerging from secondary
stems within the floral clusters. These subtending leaves
are correctly referred to as bracts. Outer leaves begin to
wilt and turn yellow as the pistillate plant reaches its repro-
ductive peak. In the primordial calyxes the pistils have
turned brown; however, all but the oldest of the flowers
are fertile and the floral clusters are white with many pairs
of ripe pistils. Resin secretion is quite advanced in some of
the older infertile calyxes, and the young pistillate calyxes
are rapidly producing capitate-stalked glandular trichomes
to protect the precious unfertilized ovule. Under wild con-
ditions the pistillate plant would be starting to form seeds
and the cycle would be drawing to a close. When Cannabis
is grown for sinsemilla floral production, the cycle is inter-
rupted. Pistillate plants remain unfertilized and begin to
produce capitate -stalked trichomes and accumulate resins in
a last effort to remain viable. Since capitate-stalked tri-
chomes now predominate, resin and THC production in-
crease. The elevated resin heads appear clear, since fresh
resin is still being secreted, often being produced in the
cellular head of the trichome. At this time THC acid pro-
duction is at a peak and CBD acid levels remain stable as
the molecules are rapidly converted to THC acids, THC acid
synthesis has not been active long enough for a high level of
CBN acid to build up from the degradation of THC acid by
light and heat. Terpene production is also nearing a peak
and the floral clusters are beautifully aromatic. Many culti-
vators prefer to pick some of their strains during this stage
in order to produce marijuana with a clear, cerebral, psycho-
active effect. It is believed that, in peak floral clusters, the
low levels of CBD and CBN allow the high level of THC to
act without their sedative effects. Also, little polymeriza-
tion of resins has occurred, so aromas and tastes are often
less resinous and tar like than at later stages. Many strains,
if they are harvested in the peak floral stage, lack the com-
pletely developed aroma, taste and psychoactive level that
appear after curing. Cultivators wait longer for the resins
to mature if a different taste and psychoactive effect is
desired.
This is the point of optimum harvest for some strains,
since most additional calyx growth has ceased. However, a
subsequent flush of new calyx growth may occur and the
plant continue ripening into the late floral stage.

 

[Milonix420]

Late Floral Stage

By this stage plants are well past the main reproduc-
tive phase and their health has begun to decline. Many of
the larger leaves have dropped off, and some of the small
inner leaves begin to change color. Autumn colors (purple,
orange, yellow, etc.) begin to appear in the older leaves
and calyxes at this time; many of the pistils turn brown and
begin to fall off. Only the last terminal pistils are still fertile
and swollen calyxes predominate. Heavy layers of protec
tive resin heads cover the calyxes and associated leaves.
Production of additional capitate-stalked glandular tri-
chomes is rare, although some existing trichomes may still
be elongating and secreting resins. As the previously
secreted resins mature, they change color. The polymeriza-
tion of small terpene molecules (which make up most of
the resin) produces long chains and a more viscous and
darker-colored resin. The ripening and darkening of resins
follows the peak of psychoactive cannabinoid synthesis and
the transparent amber color of mature resin is usually indi-
cative of high THC content. Many cultivators agree that
transparent amber resins are a sign of high-quality drug
Cannabis and many of the finest strains exhibit this charac-
teristic. Particularly potent Cannabis from California,
Hawaii, Thailand, Mexico, and Colombia is often encrusted
with transparent amber colored instead of clear resin heads.
This is also characteristic of Cannabis from other equator-
ial, subtropical and temperate zones where the growing
season is long enough to accommodate long term resin pro-
duction and maturation. Many areas of North America and
Europe have too short a season to fully mature resins un-
less a greenhouse is used. Specially acclimatized strains are
another possibility. They develop rapidly and begin matur-
ing in time to ripen amber resins while the weather is still
warm and dry.
The weight yield of floral clusters is usually highest at
this point, but strains may begin to grow an excess of
leaves in late-stage clusters to catch additional energy from
the rapidly diminishing autumn sun. Total resin accumula-
tion is highest at this stage, but the period of maximum
resin production has passed. If climatic conditions are
harsh, resins and cannabinoids will begin to decompose. As
a result, resin yield may appear high even if many of the
resin heads are missing or have begun to deteriorate and the
overall psychoactivity of the resin has dropped. THC de-
composes to CBN in the hot sun and will not remain intact
or be replaced after the metabolic processes of the plant
have ceased. Since cannabinoids are so sensitive to decom-
position by sunlight, the higher psychoactivity of amber
resins may be a secondary effect. It may be that the THC
is better protected from the sun by amber or opaque resins
than by clear resins. Some late maturing strains develop
opaque, white resin heads as a result of terpene polymeri-
zation and THC decomposition. Opaque resin heads are
usually a sign that the floral clusters are over-mature.
Late floral clusters exhibit the full potential of resin
production, aromatic principles, and psychoactive effect.
Complex mixtures of many mon oterpene and sesquiterpene
hydrocarbons along with alcohols, ethers, esters, and ke-
tones determine the aroma and flavor of mature Cannabis.
The levels of the basic terpenes and their polymerized by-
products fluctuate as the resin ripens. The aromas of fresh
floral clusters are usually preserved after drying, as by the
late floral stage, a high proportion of ripe resins are present
on the mature calyxes of the fresh plant. Cannabinoid pro-
duction favors high THC acid and rising CBN acid content
at this stage, since most active biosynthesis has ceased and
more THC acid is being broken down into CBN acid than is
being produced from CBD acid. CBD acid may accumu-
late because not enough energy is available to complete its
conversion to THC acid. The THC-to-CBD ratio in the har-
vested floral clusters certainly begins to drop as biosyn-
thesis slows, because THC acid levels decrease as it decom
poses, and at the same time CBD acid levels remain or rise
intact since CBD does not decompose as rapidly as THC
acid. This tends to produce marijuana characterized by
more somatic and sedative effects. Some cultivators prefer
this to the more cerebral and clear psychoactivity of the
peak floral stage.

 

[Milonix420]

Senescence or Rejuvenation Stage

After a pistillate plant finishes floral maturation, the
production of pistillate calyxes ceases and the plant con-
tinues senescence (decline towards death). In unusual situ-
ations, however, rejuvenation will begin and the plant will
sprout new vegetative growth in preparation for the follow-
ing season. Senescence is often highlighted by striking color
changes in the floral clusters. Leaves, calyxes, and stems
display auxiliary pigments ranging in color from yellow
through red to deep purple. Eventually a brown shade pre-
dominates and death is near. In warm areas, rejuvenation
starts as vegetative shoots form within the floral clusters.
These shoots are usually made up of unserrated single leaf-
lets separated by thin stems with long internodes. It is as if
the plant were reaching for limited winter light. Leaf pro-
duction is accelerated as plants reach the rejuvenation
stage, and resin production completely stopped. Floral
clusters left to ripen until the bitter end usually produce
inferior marijuana of lowered THC level, especially out-
doors in bad weather.
Terpene secretion changes along with cannabinoid
secretion and psychoactive effect. Various terpenes, ter-
pene polymers, and other aromatic principles are produced
and ripen at different times in the development of the
plant. If these changes in aromatic principles are directly
correlated with changes in cannabinoid production, then
harvest selections for cannabinoid level may be possible
based on the aroma of the ripening floral clusters.
It is important to understand differences in the anat-
omy of floral clusters for each Cannabis strain. Trends in
the relative quantity (dry weight) of various parts (such as
leaves, calyxes and trichomes) at various harvest dates are
characteristic of particular strains and may vary widely.
Some generalizations can be made. In most cases, the per-
centage of stem weight steadily decreases as the floral clus-
ter matures. Rejuvenation growth can account for a sudden
increase in stem percentage. The percentage of inner leaves
usually starts very low and climbs rapidly as the floral clus
ters mature. This often reflects increased leaf growth near
the end of the season. In many strains the percentage of
inner leaves drops sharply during the peak floral stage and
rises again as calyx production slows and leaf production in-
creases in the late floral stage.
Calyx production follows two basic patterns. In one,
the percentage of calyxes climbs gradually and levels out
during the peak floral stage. It begins to decline in the late
floral stage, and leaf production increases as calyx produc-
tion ceases. Other strains continue to produce calyxes at
the expense of leaves, and the calyx percentage increases
steadily throughout maturation. In both cases, there is
some tendency for calyx percentage to level out during the
peak floral stage irrespective of whether leaf growth accel-
erates or calyx growth continues at a later stage.
Resins generally accumulate steadily while the plant
matures, but strains may vary as to the stage of peak resin
secretion. Seed percentage increases exponentially with
time if the crop is well fertilized, but most samples of drug
Cannabis grown domestically are nearly seedless.
To determine dry weight, samples are harvested,
labeled, and air dried until the central stem of the floral
cluster will snap when bent. In plant research, dry weight
is done in ovens at higher temperatures, but these higher
temperatures would ruin the Cannabis. The dry floral clus-
ter is weighed. The outer leaves, inner leaves, calyxes, seeds,
and stems are segregated and each group weighed individu-
ally. The percentage is determined by dividing the indivi-
dual dry weights by the total dry weight.
Calyx percentage ranges from 30 to 70% of the dry
weight of the seedless floral clusters, depending on variety
and harvest date. Inner leaf percentages fluctuate between
15 and 45% of dry weight; stems range from 10 to 30%.
It seems obvious that for drug harvesting a maximum calyx
production is important to quality resin production. A
strain where maximum calyx production occurs simul-
taneously with peak resin production is a breeding goal not
yet attained.
Harvesting Cannabis at the proper time requires infor-
mation on how floral clusters mature and a decision on the
part of the cultivator as to what type of floral clusters are
desired. With harvesting as with other techniques of culti-
vation, the path to success is straightened when a definite
goal is established. Personal preference is always the ulti-
mate deciding factor.


Factors Influencing THC Production

Many factors influence the production of THC. In
general, the older a plant, the greater its potential to pro-
duce THC. This is true, however, only if the plant remains
healthy and vigorous, THC production requires the proper
quantity and quality of light. It seems that none of the bio-
synthetic processes operate efficiently when low light con-
ditions prevent proper photosynthesis. Research has shown
(Valle et al. 1978) that twice as much THC is produced
under a 12-hour photoperiod than under a 10-hour photo-
period. Warm temperatures are known to promote meta-
bolic activity and the production of THC. Heat also pro-
motes resin secretion, possibly in response to the threat of
floral desiccation by the hot sun, Resin collects in the
heads of glandular trichomes and does not directly seal the
pores of the calyx to prevent desiccation. Resin heads may
serve to break up the rays of the sun so that fewer of them
strike the leaf surface and raise the temperature. However,
light and heat also destroy THC. In a drug strain, a bio-
synthetic rate must be maintained such that substantially
more THC is produced than is broken down. Humidity is
an interesting parameter of THC production and one of the
least understood. Most high-quality drug Cannabis grows
in areas that are dry much of the time at least during the
maturation period. It follows that increased resin produc.
tion in response to arid conditions might account for in-
creased THC production. High-THC strains, however, also
grow in very humid conditions (greenhouses and equatorial
zones) and produce copious quantities of resin. Cannabis
seems not to produce more resins in response to dry soil,
as it does to a dry atmosphere. Drying out plants by with-
holding water for the last weeks of flowering does not
stimulate THC production, although an arid atmosphere
may do so. A Cannabis plant in flower requires water, so
that nutrients are available. for operating the various bio-
synthetic pathways.

 

[Milonix420]

There is really no confirmed method of forcing in-
creased THC production. Many techniques have developed
through misinterpretations of ancient tradition. In Colom-
bia, farmers girdle the stalk of the main stem, which cuts
off the flow of water and nutrients between the roots and
the shoots. This technique may not raise the final THC
level, but it does cause rapid maturation and yellow gold
coloration in the floral cluster (Partridge 1973). Impaling
with nails, pine splinters, balls of opium, and stones are
clandestine folk methods of promoting flowering, taste and
THC production. However none of these have any valid
documentation from the original culture or scientific basis.
Symbiotic relationships between herbs in companion plant-
ings are known to influence the production of essential
oils. Experiments might be carried out with different herbs,
such as stinging nettles, as companion plants for Cannabis,
in an effort to stimulate resin production. In the future,
agricultural techniques may be discovered which specific-
ally promote THC biosynthesis.
In general, it is considered most important that the
plant be healthy for it to produce high THC levels. The
genotype of the plant, a result of seed selection, is the
primary factor which determines the THC levels. After
that, the provision of adequate organic nutrients, water,
sunlight, fresh air, growing space, and time for maturation
seems to be the key to producing high-THC Cannabis in all
circumstances. Stress resulting from inadequacies in the
environment limits the true expression of phenotype and
cannabinoid potential. Cannabis finds a normal adaptive
defense in the production of THC laden resins, and it seems
logical that a healthy plant is best able to raise this defense.
Forcing plants to produce is a perverse ideal and alien to
the principles of organic agriculture. Plants are not ma-
chines that can be worked faster and harder to produce
more. The life processes of the plant rely on delicate
natural balances aimed at the ultimate survival of the plant
until it reproduces. The most a Cannabis cultivator or re-
searcher can expect to do is provide all the requisites for
healthy growth and guide the plant until it matures.
Flowering in Cannabis may be forced or accelerated
by many different techniques. This does not mean that
THC production is forced, only that the time before and
during flowering is shortened and flowers are produced
rapidly. Most techniques involve the deprivation of light
during the long days of summer to promote early floral
induction and sexual differentiation. This is sometimes
done by moving the plants inside a completely dark struc-
ture for 12 hours of each 24-hour day until the floral clus-
ters are mature. This stimulates an autumn light cycle and
promotes flowering at any time of the year. In the field,
covers may be made to block out the sun for a few hours
at sunrise or sunset, and these are used to cover small
plants. Photoperiod alteration is most easily accomplished
in a greenhouse, where blackout curtains are easily rolled
over the plants. Drug Cannabis production requires 11-12
hours of continuous darkness to induce flowering and at
least 10 hours of light for adequate THC production (Valle
et al. 1978). In a greenhouse, supplemental lighting need
be used only to extend daylength, while the sun supplies
the energy needed for growth and THC biosynthesis. It is
not known why at least 10 hours (and preferably 12 or 13
hours) of light are needed for high THC production. This
is not dependent on accumulated solar energy since light
responses can be activated and THC production increased
with only a 40-watt bulb. A reasonable theory is that a
light-sensitive pigment in the plant (possibly phytochrome)
acts as a switch, causing the plant to follow the flowering
cycle. THC production is probably associated with the
induction of flowering resulting from the photoperiod
change.

 

[Milonix420]

Cool night temperatures seem to promote flowering
in plants that have previously differentiated sexually. Ex-
tended cold periods, however, cause metabolic processes to
slow and maturation to cease. Most temperate Cannabis
strains are sensitive to many of the signs of an approaching
fall season and respond by beginning to flower. In con-
trast, strains from tropical areas, such as Thailand, often
seem unresponsive to any signs of fall and never speed up
development.
Contrary to popular thought, planting Cannabis strains
later in the season in temperate latitudes may actually pro-
mote earlier flowering. Most cultivators believe that plant-
ing early gives the plant plenty of time to flower and it will
finish earlier. This is often not true. Seedlings started in
February or March grow for 4-5 months of increasing
photoperiod before the days begin to get shorter following
the solstice in June. Huge vegetative plants grow and may
form floral inhibitors during the months of long photo-
period. When the days begin to get shorter, these older
plants may be reluctant to flower because of the floral
inhibitors formed in the pre-floral leaves. Since floral clus-
ter formation takes 6-10 weeks, the initial delay in flower-
ing could push the harvest date into November or Decem-
ber. Cannabis started during the short days of December or
January will often differentiate sex by March or April.
Usually these plants form few floral clusters and rejuvenate
for the long season ahead. No increased potency has been
noticed in old rejuvenated plants. Plants started in late
June or early July, after the summer solstice, are exposed
only to days of decreasing photoperiod. When old enough
they begin flowering immediately, possibly because they
haven't built up as many long-day floral inhibitors. They
begin the 6-10 week floral period with plenty of time to
finish during the warmer days of October. These later
plantings yield smaller plants because they have a shorter
vegetative cycle. This may prove an advantage. in green-
house research, where it is common for plants to grow far
too large for easy handling before they begin to flower.
Late plantings after the summer solstice receive short in-
ductive photoperiods almost immediately. However, flow-
ering is delayed into September since the plant must grow
before it is old enough to flower. Although flowering is de-
layed, the small plants rapidly produce copious quantities
of flowers in a final effort to reproduce.
Extremes in nutrient concentrations are considered
influential in both the sex determination and floral devel-
opment of Cannabis. High nitrogen levels in the soil during
the seedling stage seem to favor pistillate plants, but high
nitrogen levels during flowering often result in delayed
maturation and excessive leafing in the floral clusters. Phos-
phorus and potassium are both vital to the floral matura-
tion of Cannabis. High-phosphorus fertilizers known as
"bloom boosters" are available, and these have been shown
to accelerate flowering in some plants. However, Cannabis
plants are easily burned with high phosphorus fertilizers
since they are usually very acidic. A safer method for the
plant is the use of natural phosphorus sources, such as
colloidal phosphate, rock phosphate, or bone meal; these
tend to cause less shock in the maturing plant. They are a
source of phosphorus that is readily available as well as
long-term in effect. Chemical fertilizers sometimes produce
floral clusters with a metallic, salty flavor. Extremes in
nutrient levels usually affect the growth of the entire plant
in an adverse way.
Hormones, such as gibberellic acid, ethylene, cyto-
kinins and auxins, are readily available and can produce
some strange effects. They can stimulate flowering in some
cases, but they also stimulate sex reversal. Plant physiology
is not simple, and results are usually unpredictable.

 

[Milonix420]

Harvesting, Drying, and Curing

Cannabis is cultivated for the harvest of several differ-
ent commercial products. Pulp, fiber, seed, drugs, and resin
are produced from various parts of the Cannabis plant. The
methods of harvesting, drying, curing, and storing various
plant parts are determined by the intended use of the plant.
Pulp is made from the leaves of juvenile plants and from
waste products of fiber and drug production. Fibers are
produced from the stems of the Cannabis plant. The floral
clusters are responsible for the production of seeds, drugs,
and aromatic resins.
If plants are to be used solely as a pulp source for
paper production, they may be harvested at any point in
the life cycle when they are large enough to produce a
reasonable yield of leaves and small stems. The leaves and
small stems are stripped from the larger stalks, and after
drying they are bailed and stored or made directly into
paper pulp. Cannabis contains approximately 67% cellulose
and 16% hemicellulose; this makes a fine resilient paper.
In Italy, the finest Bibles are printed on hemp paper.
Fiber or hemp Cannabis is usually grown in large,
crowded fields. Crowding of seedlings results in tall, thin
plants with few limbs and long, straight fibers. The total
field is harvested when the fiber content reaches the cor-
rect level but before the fibers begin to lignify or harden.
The cut stalks are stripped of leaves and bundled to dry.
Fibers are extracted by natural or chemical retting, Retting
is the breaking down of the outside skin layer and tissues
that join the fibers into bundles, so that the individual
fibers are freed. Natural retting is accomplished by soaking
the stalks in water and laying them out on the ground,
where they are attacked by decay organisms such as fungi
and bacteria. Dew may also wet the stalks, and they are
turned frequently to evenly wet them and avoid excessive
decay. Continued soaking, attack by organisms, and pound-
ing of the stalks results in the liberation of individual fibers
from their vascular bundles. Natural retting takes from one
week to a month. The fibers are thoroughly dried, wrapped
in bundles and stored in a cool, dry area. The yield of fiber
is approximately 25% of the weight of the dried stalks.
Seeds are harvested by cutting fields of seeded pistil-
late plants and removing the seeds either by hand or ma-
chine. Cannabis seeds usually fall easily from the floral
clusters when mature. The remainder of the plant may be
used as pulp material or low-grade marijuana. The Indian
tradition of preparing ganja is by walking on it and rolling
it between the palms to remove excess seeds and leaves.
Seeds are allowed to dry completely and all vegetable
debris is removed before storage. This prevents spoilage
caused by molds and other fungi. Seeds to be used for oil
production may be stored in bags, boxes, or jars, and not
exposed to excess humidity (causing them to germinate) or
excessive aridity (causing them to dry out and crack).
Seeds preserved for future germination are thoroughly air
dried in paper envelopes or cloth sacks and stored in air-
tight containers in a cool, dark, dry place. Freezing may
also dry out seeds and cause them to crack. If seeds are
carefully stored, they remain viable for a number of years.
As a batch of seeds ages, fewer and fewer of them will ger-
mmate, but even after 5 to 6 years a small percentage of
the seeds usually still germinate. Old batches of seeds also
tend to germinate slowly (up to 5 weeks). This means that
a batch of seeds for cultivation might be stored for a longer
time if the initial sample is large enough to provide suffi-
cient seeds for another generation. If a strain is to be pre-
served, it is necessary to grow and reproduce it every three
years, so that enough viable seeds are always available.

Curing Floral Clusters

Harvesting, drying, curing, and storage of Cannabis
floral clusters to preserve and enhance appearance, taste,
and psychoactivity is often discussed among cultivators.
More floral clusters are ruined by poor handling after har-
vest than by any other single cause. When the plant is har-
vested, the production of fine floral clusters for smoking
begins. Cannabis floral clusters are harvested by two basic
methods: either individually, by cutting them from the
stalks and carefully packaging them in shallow boxes or
trays, or all simultaneously by uprooting or cutting off the
entire plant. In instances where the floral clusters mature
sequentially, individual harvest is used because the entire
plant is not ripe at any given time. Removing individual
clusters also makes drying easier and quicker because the
stalks are divided into shorter pieces. Floral clusters will
dry much more slowly if the plant is dried whole. This
means that all of the water in the plant must pass through
the stomata on the surface of the leaves and calyxes in-
stead of through cut stem ends. The stomata close soon
after harvest and drying is slowed since little water vapor
escapes.

 

[Milonix420]

Boiling attached Cannabis roots after harvesting whole
plants, but before drying, is an interesting technique. Origi
nally it was thought by cultivators that boiling the roots
would force resins to the floral clusters. In actuality, there
are very few resins within the vascular system of the plant
and most of the resins have been secreted in the heads of
glandular trichomes. Once resins are secreted they are no
longer water-soluble and are not part of the vascular sys-
tem. As a result, neither boiling nor any other process will
move resins and cannabinoids around the plant. However,
boiling the roots does lengthen the drying time of the
whole plant. Boiling the roots shocks the stomata of the
leaves and forces them to close immediately; less water
vapor is allowed to escape and the floral clusters dry more
slowly. If the leaves are left intact when drying, the water
evaporates through the leaves instead of through the
flowers.
Whole plants, limbs, and floral clusters are usually
hung upside down or laid out on screen trays to dry. Many
cultivators believe that hanging floral clusters upside-down
to dry makes the resins flow by gravity to the limb tips. As
with boiling roots, little if any transport of cannabinoids
and resins through the vascular system occurs after the
plant is harvested. Inverted drying does cause the leaves to
hang next to the floral clusters as they dry, and the resins
are protected from rubbing off during handling. Floral clus-
ters also appear more attractive and larger if they are hung
to dry. When laid out flat to dry, floral clusters usually
develop a flattened, slightly pressed profile, and the leaves
do not dry around the floral clusters and protect them.
Also, the floral clusters are usually turned to prevent spoil-
age; this requires extra handling. It is easy to bruise the
clusters during handling, and upon drying, bruised tissue
will turn dark green or brown. Resins are very fragile and
fall from the outside of the calyx if shaken. The less hand-
ling the floral clusters receive the better they look, taste
and smoke. Floral clusters, including large leaves and stems,
usually dry to about 25% of their original fresh weight.
When dry enough to store without the threat of mold, the
central stem of the floral cluster will snap briskly when
bent. Usually about 10% water remains in dry, stored Can-
nabis floral clusters prepared for smoking. If some water
content is not maintained, the resins will lose potency and
the clusters will disintegrate into a useless powder exposed
to decomposition by the atmosphere.
As floral clusters dry, and even after they are sealed
and packaged, they continue to cure. Curing removes the
unpleasant green taste and allows the resins and cannabi-
noids to finish ripening. Drying is merely the removal of
water from the floral clusters so they will be dry enough
to burn. Curing takes this process one step farther to pro-
duce tasty and psychoactive marijuana. If drying occurs
too rapidly, the green taste will be sealed into the tissues
and may remain there indefinitely. A floral cluster is not
dead after harvest any more than an apple is. Certain meta-
bolic activities take place for some time, much like the
ripening and eventual spoiling of an apple after it is picked.
During this period, cannabinoid acids decarboxylate into
the psychoactive cannabinoids and terpenes isomerize to
create new polyterpenes with tastes and aromas different
from fresh floral clusters. It is suspected that cannabinoid
biosynthesis may also continue for a short time after har-
vest. Taste and aroma also improve as chlorophylls and
other pigments begin to break down. When floral clusters
are dried slowly they are kept at a humidity very near that
of the inside of the stomata. Alternatively, sealing and
opening bags or jars or clusters is a procedure that keeps
the humidity high within the container and allows the
periodic venting of gases given off during curing. It also
exposes the clusters to fresh air needed for proper curing.
If the container is airtight and not vented, then rot
from anaerobic bacteria and mold is often seen. Paper
boxes breathe air but also retain moisture and are often
used for curing Cannabis. Dry floral clusters are usually
trimmed of outer leaves just prior to smoking. This is
called manicuring.
The leaves act as a wrapper to protect the delicate
floral clusters. If manicured before drying, a significant
increase in the rate of THC breakdown occurs.

Storage
Cannabis floral clusters are best stored in a cool, dark
place. Refrigeration will retard the breakdown of canna-
binoids, but freezing has adverse effects. Freezing forces
moisture to the surface from the inside of the floral tissues
and this may harm the resins secreted on the surface. Floral
clusters with the shade leaves intact are well protected
from abrasion and accidental removal of resins, but mani-
cured floral clusters are best tightly packed so they do not
rub together. Glass jars and plastic freezer bags are the
most common containers for the storage of floral clusters.
Polyethylene plastic sandwich or trash bags are not suited
to long-term storage since they breathe air and water vapor.
This may cause the floral clusters to dry out excessively
and lose potency. Heat-sealed boilable plastic pouches do
not breathe and are frequently used for storage. Glass
canning jars are also very air-tight, but glass breaks. It is
feared by some connoisseurs that plastic may also impart
an unpleasant taste to the floral clusters. In either case,
additional care is usually taken to protect the floral clus
ters from light so another opaque container is used to cover
the clear glass or plastic wrapping. Clusters are not sealed
permanently until they have finished curing. Curing in-
volves the presence of oxygen, and sealing floral clusters
will end the free exchange of oxygen and end curing. How-
ever, oxygen also causes the slow breakdown of THC to
CBN, so after the curing process is completed, the con-
tainer is completely sealed. Any oxygen present in the con-
tainer will be used up and no more can enter. Nitrogen has
been suggested as a packing medium because it is very non-
reactive and inexpensive. Jars or bags may be flooded with
nitrogen to displace air and then sealed. Vacuum-sealing
machines are available for Mason jars and may be modified
to vacuum-sealed bags.
The proper harvesting, curing, and storage of Cannabis
closes the season and completes' the life cycle. Cannabis is
certainly a plant of great economic potential and scientific
interest; its rich genetic diversity deserves preservation and
its possible beneficial uses deserve more research.

He who sows the ground with care and diligence
acquires greater stock of religious merit than he
could gain by the repetition of ten thousand
prayers.
-Zoroaster, Zend-avesta

 

[Milonix420]

I hope this helps out alot of people out there with low cash i know how it feels when you wanna do something but dont have the cash so i thought ill post this i hope this isnt too much im working on make this book downloadable and printable i will post it here when im done
be safe
and
Keep it green

-Milonix420

 

[Harry Gypsna]

Sorry to say this m8, but the word Copyright, springs to mind, dont wanna get GN in trouble do we