Increased Cannabinoid Yields & Advanced Grow Teks - Breed Tek Talk etc...

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Im going to share my finds that I find to be so advanced they are boggling to my mind, also some insights...
I also invite you to share the same here link your relevant threads and share knowledge together

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Increased Cannabinoid Yields & Advanced Grow Teks

Everyone is most likely familiar with this, but if not heres the numbers and the science

Drought had substantial effects on cannabinoid yield, expressed as grams of cannabinoid from inflorescences per unit growing area (g·m−2). In the drought treatment, THC yield was 50% higher, THCA yield was 43% higher, CBD yield was 67% higher, and CBDA yield was 47% higher than in the control

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Increasing Inflorescence Dry Weight and Cannabinoid Content in Medical Cannabis Using Controlled Drought Stress

Controlled application of drought can increase secondary metabolite concentrations in some essential oil-producing crops. To evaluate the effects of drought on cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) inflorescence dry weight and cannabinoid content, drought stress was applied to container-grown cannabis...

journals.ashs.org

3 Tips for Controlled Drought Stress​

Limit water to maximize cannabinoid and terpene levels in cannabis production.

Dr. Deron Caplan, Ph.D. | May 2021

Figure 1. Location for leaf angle measurement to indicate degree of wilting in cannabis.
Severe drought lowers yields and kills crops, but, in moderation, drought can stimulate secondary metabolite production. Slight and infrequent drought stress combined with high solar radiation is recognized to increase essential oils in herbs and spices in places such as the Mediterranean. Fortunately, cannabis growers can also use drought to their advantage to increase the secondary metabolite content, or cannabinoids and terpenes, of their crops.
Researchers at the University of Guelph (U of G) found that a single controlled application of drought stress increased the concentration of tetrahydrocannabinol acid (THCA) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) by 12% and 13%, respectively, compared to a non-stressed control. Further, yield per unit growing area of THCA, CBDA, THC and CBD increased 43%, 47%, 50% and 67%, respectively.
Applying controlled drought stress may be difficult in some cultivation systems, but for those interested in experimenting (carefully), here are some tips.

Tip 1: Go slow and watch for wilting.​

In the U of G study, drought stress was applied by allowing the container-grown cannabis plants to dry slowly under standard conditions. As water became limiting (around the 11-day mark), the fan leaves began to wilt and the plants were rewatered. Wilting was defined as a 50% increase in leaf angle from their normal state and measured using a handheld protractor (Fig 1).

Note that the wilting response to drought varies by species, and only one cultivar was used in the study. Other cultivars may wilt differently, making it important to watch your plants closely. Other drought stress indicators such as growing media moisture content may be better suited for some cultivars.

Figure 2. Visual effects of drought stress on Cannabis sativa L. ‘NC:Med (Nebula)’
Photos by Deron Caplan

Tip 2: Apply drought stress during mid-to-late flowering.​

Drought stress timing is essential to minimize yield losses and maximize the concentration of secondary metabolites. If drought is applied while the plants are growing vegetatively, you can expect a drop in yield. In the U of G study, drought was applied at week 7 in flower when vegetative growth was mostly complete.
Cannabinoids accumulate mostly during the flowering stage, but the timing of cannabinoid concentration varies by cultivar. It is best to collect cannabinoid content data throughout the crop to inform when to apply the stress, but this can be cost prohibitive for some growers. In most cases, a good place to start is two to three weeks before harvest and iterate from there.

Tip 3: Start slow, and don’t overdo it.​

A host of factors can influence water use in plants. For example, high heat, low humidity and high airflow can increase water usage. Additionally, a low growing media volume can decrease water availability. Both increased water usage and reduced availability can expedite drought stress symptoms.
In the U of G study, wilting occurred after 11 days without water. The drought stress was gradual, allowing the plants to acclimate. Keep this time frame in mind when applying drought stress in your cultivation system—you may need to adjust environmental conditions, the growing media, or the pot size to get comparable results.



Dr. Deron Caplan, PhD, is the Director of R&D at Flowr in Kelowna, B.C.

References​

1. Kleinwächter, M. & Selmar, D. New insights explain that drought stress enhances the quality of spice and medicinal plants: Potential applications. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 35, 121–131 (2015).
2. Caplan, D., Dixon, M. & Zheng, Y. Increasing Inflorescence Dry Weight and Cannabinoid Content in Medical Cannabis Using Controlled Drought Stress. HortScience. 54, 964–969 (2019).
3. Xu, Z., Zhou, G. & Shimizu, H. Plant responses to drought and rewatering. Plant Signal Behavior. 5, 649–54 (2010).

 

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Figure 1. Scanning electron microscopy of fresh pollen grains (A,B) and dried pollens (C,D) of a hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) male flower (E) that comprises anther embedded with pollen sac, filament, bulbous trichome, and sepal.

Results​

Female Inflorescence Development​

The production system for marijuana plants is based on vegetatively propagated plants that are first grown under a 24 h photoperiod for 4 weeks and then switched to a 12–14 h dark:10–12 h light regime. The plants in Figure 1A have just been “flipped” to the reduced lighting regime. Figure 1B shows development of large terminal inflorescence clusters in some strains, e.g., “Hash Plant” that extend to a 1 m height above the leaf canopy. The sequential development of the female inflorescence in several marijuana strains is shown in Figures 1C–K. At the early onset of flower development (weeks 1–2 of the flowering period), young terminal inflorescences developed white hair-like stigmas (Figure 1C). In subsequent weeks 3–4, development of yellowish-white clusters of stigmas which were bifurcate at the tips can be seen (Figures 1D,E). This stage was the most receptive to pollination (authors, unpublished observations). In red and anthocyanin-accumulating strains, stigma development was similar over this time period, and at advanced stages of inflorescence development, the yellowish-white clusters of stigmas were accompanied by red or purple pigmentation in the style tissues or subtending bracts (Figures 1F–H). Maturation of the inflorescence (weeks 5–6 of the flowering period) was characterized by the curling and browning/reddening of the stigmas and swelling of the carpels that occurred in the flowering period (Figures 1I,J). The mature inflorescence close to harvest (weeks 7–8) with collapsed stigmas and swollen carpels is shown in Figure 1K).

Hermaphrodite Inflorescence Development​

Female inflorescences of three marijuana strains grown under commercial conditions were visually examined at weekly intervals. Beginning around week 4 of the flowering period, the appearance of individual anthers or clusters of anthers within the bract tissues adjacent to the stigmas was observed in hermaphroditic flowers at a frequency of 5–10% of the plants examined (Figures 2A–D). The anthers were visible in weeks 4–7 of the flowering period and were present until harvest. In rare instances, the entire female inflorescence was converted to large numbers of clusters of anthers (Figure 3). Scanning electron microscopic examination of the stigmas that were present in hermaphroditic flowers showed the papillae (stigmatic hairs) (Figure 4A), which in mature inflorescences originated from a central core (Figure 4B). Individual anthers that were produced in hermaphroditic inflorescences were shown to consist of an outer wall (epidermis and endothecium) with a longitudinal groove (stomium) (Figure 4C) which, upon maturity, expanded and dehisced to release pollen grains (Figure 4D). Bulbous structures presumed to be trichomes were also observed forming along the stomium of the anther (Figure 4E). When viewed under the light microscope, the anther wall and stomium could be seen and pollen grains were released into the water used to mount the sample (Figures 5A–C). Some pollen grains had collapsed when viewed under the scanning electron microscope (Figure 5D). Pollen germination was observed within 48–72 h on water agar and ranged from 10 to 30% (Figure 8A).
FIGURE 4

Figure 4. Scanning electron microscopy of the stigmas and anthers in hermaphroditic flowers of Cannabis sativa. (A) Young developing stigma with receptive papillae or stigmatic hairs (arrow). (B) Older stigma in which the stigmatic hairs are coiled and collapsed around a central core. (C) Individual anther prior to dehiscence showing an outer epidermis with the beginning of a longitudinal groove (stomium) (arrow). (D) Mature anther that has dehisced and revealing pollen grain release (arrow). (E) Enlarged view of the stomium showing formation of bulbous trichomes (arrow) forming in the groove.

FIGURE 5

Figure 5. Light and scanning electron microscopic observations of anthers and pollen grains in hermaphroditic flowers of Cannabis sativa. (A) The anther wall and groove are visible and pollen grains can be seen packed within the anther pollen sacs (arrow). (B) Release of pollen grains into water used to mount the sample. (C,D) Intact and collapsed pollen grains as viewed in the light microscope (C) and the scanning electron microscope (D).

FIGURE 6

Figure 6. Flower and pollen development in genetically male plants of Cannabis sativa. (A–C) Male flowers formed in clusters at leaf axils. Each flower is pedicillate, with individual stalks. (D–F) Opening of male flowers to reveal 5 green-white tepals which expose 5 stamens each attached to a filament that dangles the anther. (G) Large amounts of pollen (arrow) being released through the longitudinal groove (stomium) of the anther. (H) Enlarged view of the stomium showing formation of bulbous trichomes (arrow) forming in the groove of the anther. (I) Close-up of a trichome with a short stalk (arrow). Pollen grains can be seen in the foreground.

Male Inflorescence Development​

In genetically male plants, anthers were produced within clusters of staminate flowers that developed at leaf axils (Figures 6A–C) at around 4 weeks of age. At flower maturity in weeks 4–6, anthers dangled from individual flowers and were observed to release large amounts of pollen grains, which were deposited in yellow masses on the leaves below (Figures 6D–F, 7). Such prolific release of pollen was not observed from the hermaphrodite flowers. Scanning electron microscopic examination of the anthers produced on staminate plants showed the release of pollen grains (Figure 6G). Along the longitudinal groove or stomium, the formation of a line of bulbous trichomes (Figure 6H) that developed on a short pedicel (Figure 6I) was observed, similar to that seen in hermaphroditic flowers. When pollen from male plants was deposited onto female inflorescences (Figure 8B) and viewed at 72–96 h, various stages of pollen germination and germ tube development were observed (Figures 8C–F).
FIGURE 7

Figure 7. Comparative growth of male (M) and female (F) plants of C. sativa strain “Blue Deity,” showing the more rapid growth of male plants to achieve taller slender plants that shed pollen onto shorter slower developing female plants. Plants originated from one seed batch produced from cross-fertilization that yielded male and female plants in approximately equal ratios. Seeds were planted at the same time and grown under a 24 h photoperiod for 4 weeks.

FIGURE 8

Figure 8. Light and scanning electron micrographs of pollen germination in Cannabis sativa. (A) Pollen germination in water after 72 h showing germ tube formation at a 20% frequency. (B) Female inflorescence showing protruding receptive stigmas. The flower heads were excised and pollinated in vitro using pollen collected from a male flower. (C–F) Pollen germination and germ tube development on stigmatic papillae in situ. Arrows show pollen grains in (C,D) and germ tube growth in (E,F).

Within the hermaphroditic inflorescences in which anthers were found, seed set was initiated, and mature seeds were observed prior to the harvest period (Figures 9A,B). From each of 3 inflorescences bearing seeds, a total of 34, 48, and 22 seeds were obtained. The seeds were removed and placed in moist potting medium where they germinated at a rate of 90–95% within 10–14 days to produce seedlings (Figures 9C,D).
FIGURE 9

Figure 9. Seed formation within hermaphroditic inflorescences of Cannabis sativa. (A) Longitudinal section cut through the female inflorescence showing outer protruding stigmas and unfertilized ovules. (B) Seed formation within a hermaphroditic inflorescence after 3–4 weeks. Some of the calyx tissue was cut away to reveal the underlying seeds. (C) Seeds recovered from hermaphroditic flowers, ranging from mature (brown) to immature (yellowish-green). (D) Stages of seed germination after placement in a cocofibre:vermiculite potting medium and incubation for 10 days.

​

Discussion​

The spontaneous development of hermaphroditic inflorescences (pistillate flowers containing anthers) on female plants during commercial marijuana cultivation creates a problem for growers, since the resulting seed formation reduces the quality of the harvested flower (Small, 2017). The allocation of resources by the female plant to pollen production, followed by seed production, can result in disproportionately lower levels of terpenes and essential oils (by up to 56%) in the pollinated flowers compared to unfertilized female flowers (Meier and Mediavilla, 1998). Therefore, inflorescences containing seeds are of lower quality and frequently not suited for sale. Unpollinated female flowers, on the other hand, continue to expand growth of the style-stigma tissues, potentially to increase opportunities for attracting pollen (Small and Naraine, 2015), and consequently are more desirable commercially. In the present study, we observed spontaneous formation of hermaphroditic flowers on 5–10% of plants of three different strains of marijuana grown indoors under commercial conditions. In most cases, small clusters of anthers developed within certain female flowers, replacing the pistil. In rare cases (two out of 1,000 plants), the entire female inflorescence was displaced by large numbers of clusters of anthers instead of pistils (Figure 3). The factors which trigger this change in phenotype have not been extensively researched. This is due, in part, to the restrictions placed by government regulatory agencies on conducting research experiments on flowering cannabis plants (including in Canada), which reduces the opportunity to conduct the types of controlled experiments that are needed to elucidate the basis for hermaphroditism.
In earlier research, induction of hermaphroditism in marijuana plants was achieved experimentally by applications of gibberellic acid (Heslop-Harrison, 1956, 1957; Ram and Jaiswal, 1970, 1972, 1974; Galoch, 1978; Rosenthal, 1991; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNOCD], 2009). Other studies showed that male and female flower ratios in marijuana plants could be altered by applications of chemicals such as 2-chloroethanephosphonic acid, aminoethoxyvinylglycine, silver nitrate, silver thiosulfate, or cobalt chloride (Ram and Jaiswal, 1970, 1972; Ram and Sett, 1981). Silver nitrate inhibits ethylene action in plants (Kumar et al., 2009) and was reported to increase male sex expression in marijuana, cucumber and gourd plants (Atsmon and Tabbak, 1979; Ram and Sett, 1982; Stankovic and Prodanovic, 2002). In a recent study, applications of silver thiosulfate induced male flower formation on genetically female hemp plants (Lubell and Brand, 2018). These findings demonstrate that changes in growth regulator levels in treated plants can impact hermaphroditic flower formation.
Physical or chemical stresses can also have a role in inducing staminate flower development on female plants of marijuana. For example, external environmental stresses, e.g., low photoperiods and reduced temperatures in outdoor production, were reported to increase staminate flower formation (Kaushal, 2012). Some plants formed hermaphroditic flowers when female plants were exposed to extended periods of darkness early during growth or during altered photoperiods during the flowering stage, although the exact conditions were not described (Rosenthal, 1991, 2000). Such stress factors could affect internal phytohormone levels, such as auxin:gibberellin ratios (Tanimoto, 2005), which could in turn trigger hermaphroditic flower formation in marijuana plants.

 

[acespicoli]

Tutorial - DIY STS Mixing/Using Guide for Feminized Pollen/Seeds R.C.Clarke Method as Base

Feminized Seeds are Awesome Hermaphrodite plants are not awesome. Fortunately, it's possible to create cleanly produced feminized pollen. This pollen can be used to create seeds which are 99.9% female. As long as logical safeguards are taken, these seeds will not be any more sensitive to...

www.icmag.com

 

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Liebig's law of the minimum - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Soil test - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Various study links on nutrient effects on cannabis coming...

 

[acespicoli]

Various from breeders
... a thread in progress, (in edit)
please continue past these temp bookmarks
. Drama free zone

Hortapharm B.V. - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Nevil Schoenmakers - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Scott Blakey - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Howard Marks - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Interview with Ben Dronkers - Hash Marihuana & Hemp Museum

Get to know the Museum’s founder, Ben Dronkers, and his extraordinary dedication to revealing the history and uses of Cannabis.

hashmuseum.com

Wernard （Positronics）; Neville （The Seed Bank）; Eddie Reedeker （Flying Dutchmen）

Category:Cannabis researchers - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

Category:Cannabis writers - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

 

[acespicoli]

COLCHICINE, KILLER WEED, BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BILL YODER​

by Janine King - Mary Yoder’s sister

Colchicine is most commonly known as a medication for gout, but in its more concentrated form, is used in agriculture to enhance crop growth. It is also used as an agent to grow highly potent marijuana. Marijuana seeds treated with Colchicine undergo a genetic mutation that yields all female plants with extremely high levels of THC. We sisters had firsthand knowledge that in the 1980’s Bill grew a crop of “killer weed”. That’s what we called it because it was so potent. We knew of the process he used because Mary described it to us. We were not familiar with the name Colchicine, but we knew that he had treated the seeds with a chemical substance that genetically altered them to produce all female plants. Mary referred to this as Bill’s “special process”. After many hours of research with several people helping, we are unable to find a method of marijuana growing like the one she described, that does not involve Colchicine.

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Polyploid types are labeled according to the number of chromosome sets in the nucleus. The letter x is used to represent the number of chromosomes in a single set:

• haploid (one set; 1x), for example male European fire ants
• diploid (two sets; 2x), for example humans and unaltered cannabis (usually)
• triploid (three sets; 3x), for example sterile saffron crocus, or seedless watermelons, also common in the phylum Tardigrada[7]
• tetraploid (four sets; 4x), for example, Plains viscacha rat, Salmonidae fish,[8] the cotton Gossypium hirsutum[9]
• pentaploid (five sets; 5x), for example Kenai Birch (Betula kenaica)
• hexaploid (six sets; 6x), for example some species of wheat,[10] kiwifruit[11]
• heptaploid or septaploid (seven sets; 7x)
• octaploid or octoploid, (eight sets; 8x), for example Acipenser (genus of sturgeon fish), dahlias
• decaploid (ten sets; 10x), for example certain strawberries
• dodecaploid or duodecaploid (twelve sets; 12x), for example the plants Celosia argentea and Spartina anglica [12] or the amphibian Xenopus ruwenzoriensis.
• Forty-four sets; 44x, for example black mulberry[13]

Cannabis 1980's
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8234880/

Polyploid Cannabis. What is polyploid cannabis?

Read on to find out more about polyploid cannabis. Polyploid cannabis is being researched to see if it can improve yield or potency of the final harvest.

dutch-passion.com

Figure 2
Ploidy identification by flow cytometry and chromosome squashes. Flow cytometric analysis of (A) a diploid C. sativa ‘Stem Cell CBG’ shown with the internal standard, (B) diploid, triploid, and tetraploid F1 hybrids, and (C) a tetraploid F1 hybrid and internal standard. Chromosome squash of (D) a diploid C. sativa ‘Stem Cell CBG’ (2n = 2x = 20), (E) a triploid ‘Stem Cell CBG Seedless’ (2n = 3x = 30), and (F) a tetraploid F1 hybrid (2n = 4x = 40). Internal standard (standard) = QA reference beads UV bright 3 μm (Quantum Analysis GmbH, Münster, Germany). Bar = 10 µm.

HPxG13 (chemical induced mutation?)

 

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Determination of pesticide residues in cannabis smoke - PubMed ​

The present study was conducted in order to quantify to what extent cannabis consumers may be exposed to pesticide and other chemical residues through inhaled mainstream cannabis smoke. Three different smoking devices were evaluated in order to provide a generalized data set representative of...

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov



J Toxicol
. 2013;2013:378168.
doi: 10.1155/2013/378168. Epub 2013 May 12.

Determination of pesticide residues in cannabis smoke​

Nicholas Sullivan 1 , Sytze Elzinga, Jeffrey C Raber

Affiliations

• PMID: 23737769
• PMCID: PMC3666265
• DOI: 10.1155/2013/378168

Free PMC article

Abstract​

The present study was conducted in order to quantify to what extent cannabis consumers may be exposed to pesticide and other chemical residues through inhaled mainstream cannabis smoke. Three different smoking devices were evaluated in order to provide a generalized data set representative of pesticide exposures possible for medical cannabis users. Three different pesticides, bifenthrin, diazinon, and permethrin, along with the plant growth regulator paclobutrazol, which are readily available to cultivators in commercial products, were investigated in the experiment. Smoke generated from the smoking devices was condensed in tandem chilled gas traps and analyzed with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Recoveries of residues were as high as 69.5% depending on the device used and the component investigated, suggesting that the potential of pesticide and chemical residue exposures to cannabis users is substantial and may pose a significant toxicological threat in the absence of adequate regulatory frameworks.

 

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Discussion
Adjustments in lighting environments for mother plants generally produced either plants with
many more meristems (T5 and MH, ~160 meristems) but short internode lengths (~23 mm)
or fewer meristems (~124 meristems) with longer internodes (MH+FR; ~29mm), revealing a
life-history trade-off that will influence production of clones. Notably, one cultivar (i.e., Ghost
Train Haze) would be easier to use as a source of clones because it produces more meristems
and longer internodes and stem cuttings were more likely to root quickly than the other culti-
vars. Importantly, we did not detect any reaction norms (because there were no significant
genotype by lighting environment interactions) suggesting that these C. sativa genotypes may
already be selected for “stable” cultivated genotypes. Finally, the production of adventitious
roots in stem cuttings appears to be positively influenced by stem wounding but not influenced
by lighting condition or cutting tool. These results suggest that clonal propagation of cannabis
may be increased by wounding stem cuttings and may be influenced by diverse lighting condi-
tions for mother plants, depending upon the desired morphological outcome. Specifically, if
the grower is aiming for many meristems on mother plants, we recommend using either T5
fluorescent or metal halide lighting, whereas if a grower’s goal is long internodes, then we rec-
ommend using metal halide lighting augmented with far red LEDs.
Within a cannabis operation, mother plants serve as a source of stem cuttings to propagate
the next crop of harvested plants. As such, an ideal plant and cultivar would possess large
quantities of meristems and reasonably long internodes (~40–80 mm) such that a single cut-
ting would be composed of three nodes and two internodes of ~75 mm each. Finally, because
leaf area influences photosynthetic assimilation rates, the leaves of an ideal mother plant
would be relatively unresponsive to shifts in light. As predicted based on other studies of pho-
tomorphogenic responses [summarized in 28], the four light spectra had a strong influence on
plant architecture but revealed a trade-off between number of meristems and length of inter-
nodes. Under far red LED lighting, internodes were stretched to 29 mm and ranged between
5–93 mm, depending on the plant, genotype, and lighting condition. Under MH+FR, ~5 inter-
nodes (6 nodes) would be needed to create a stem cutting 15 cm long whereas under T5s, 6
internodes and 7 nodes would create a 15cm stem cutting. Therefore, under T5 lighting, plants
would create 22 stem cuttings, whereas under MH+FR lighting, a plant would produce 20
stem cuttings that were 15 cm long, if almost the entire plant was useable. Since the difference
among lighting conditions is negligible for the volume of clones produced, selection of lighting
is perhaps best decided by a grower’s preference of clone morphology, either relatively long or
short internodes. One of this study’s intentions was to elongate the internodes (length of stem
between leaves/lateral branches), and although changing lighting conditions to metal halide
augmented with Far Red LEDs (relative to all other lighting treatments) lengthened internodes
in statistically significant ways, the increase is still perhaps industrially insignificant ways given
the trade-off detected.
It is difficult to attribute plant morphogenic responses to specific physiological pathways
mediated by the light environment in this experiment, because the light spectra used differed
in many ways. However, there has been extensive research on two conspicuous characteristics
that differ among light environments. Although they have been reviewed elsewhere [e.g., 29],
we briefly mention them here. First, plants grown under altered red to far red light ratios are
generally taller with longer petioles, and invest relatively more dry biomass in the stem, at the
cost of partitioning dry biomass to the leaves [30]. Second, sun-leaves (with smaller leaf area
and a high photosynthetic capacity) develop when exposed to a greater blue light fraction, or a
higher absolute amount of blue light [31–33]. However, it is difficult to draw reliable conclu-
sions on the mechanisms underlying the responses of the plants grown under the various
spectra used in this study because of the interaction of blue light fraction, R:FR ratio, and other
differences in the spectrum.
More dramatically, cultivar selection will influence the rate of clone production, since geno-
type had such a significant impact on both the number of stem cuttings available and their rate
of rooting. High demographic recruitment rates in other, naturally clonal species are main-
tained by both high rates of clonal propagation and low variance among genotypes in clonal
recruitment [34]. Growth rates commonly differ among genotypes in many plant species
[35,36]. Importantly, many plant species have shown genotypic differences in plant architec-
ture and physiology in response to environmental variation, including visible spectra [4,37].
Thus, choosing cultivars that show aggressive growth rates and that tend to naturally have lon-
ger internodes may improve yield of clones from mothers. However, this is rarely the single
most important consideration for cultivar selection in a licensed facility. Futher, we failed to
find any significant genotype by environment effects for any trait, which taken together sug-
gests that for these cultivars, a genotype’s ability to exhibit plasticity in growth form in the face
of different environmental conditions is not genetically determined [38]. This may be a result
of repeated informal selection by growers for “stable” genotypes.
Like several other crops where one sex is economically important (e.g., jojoba, fibre hemp,
asparagus), it is important to be able to quickly clone plants to increase productivity and
reduce variability in crop performance [20,39,40] and strategies for improving the efficiency of
clonal propagation have been studied for a century [41]. While clonal propagation is widely
used, specific methods used vary considerably, along with degree of success. Several studies
report both increased rooting and number of roots, when plant stems are wounded, and our
results are consistent with this [20,42]. Cannabis sativa has been regularly vegetatively propa-
gated [8,43] and various cultural strategies improve rooting success of stem segments includ-
ing the use of IBA. Although the mechanisms behind how wounding would serve to increase
adventitious root formation is unknown in C. sativa, it appears as though wounding can result
in the release of polyphenol oxidase or jasmonic acid in other plants, chemicals that support
rapid root growth (sometimes via shuttling sugars, for instance to the sites of growth [44,45].
Similar to a recent study which tested the effect of leaf number [43], we also noted no signifi-
cant effect of this variable. However, our study adds wounding as a successful strategy to the
horticultural toolbox of a Cannabis propagator.
In summary, we found that some cultivars possess more traits that make it easier for har-
vesting stem cuttings and light can augment their plant architecture for the purposes of clonal
propagation in C. sativa. These differences were expressed as changes in the number of meri-
stems and internodes. Further, our data is the first the reveal the tendency for cannabis stem
cuttings to produce adventitious roots is driven both by genotype and stem wounding
practices

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Anyone just creeping reading ? Maybe I should do a quick summary of each post like this ?

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In summary, we found that some cultivars possess more traits that make it easier for har-
vesting stem cuttings and light can augment their plant architecture for the purposes of clonal
propagation in C. sativa. These differences were expressed as changes in the number of meri-
stems and internodes. Further, our data is the first the reveal the tendency for cannabis stem
cuttings to produce adventitious roots is driven both by genotype and stem wounding
practices

Maybe not a surprise to many ?

Wounded stems were 162% more likely to root than unwounded stems and rooted
1.5 days earlier.

Specifically, if
the grower is aiming for many meristems on mother plants, we recommend using either T5
fluorescent or metal halide lighting, whereas if a grower’s goal is long internodes, then we rec-
ommend using metal halide lighting augmented with far red LEDs.

Basal stem wounding when combined with applications of the
auxin IBA (1H-indole- 3-butanoic acid) has been shown to encourage rooting

Scissor cuts are preferable to scapel or clean razor slice as it produces a more macerated cut
Which in urn roots easier

Another tip cut and immediatey apply gel rooting hormone or drop cut in distilled water
When air enters the stem it can act as a abortant to the cuttings survival

Ultrasonic misters and aeronautic hydro is excellent culture
I really should present some pictures on these methods they are outstanding

 

[acespicoli]

Marijuana Research | The University of Mississippi

pharmacy.olemiss.edu

Recently I heard the real story of G13 and how it made its way to the streets
Anyone have the legit cut? Or maybe playing around with the HP x

How much marijuana does the facility grow?​

Answer:​

UM grows various amounts of different varieties of cannabis to meet the anticipated needs of researchers under the National Institute on Drug Abuse contract. A typical outdoor growing season yields over 500kg of plant material, while an indoor season yields about 10kg.

​

 

[Verdant Whisperer]

COLCHICINE, KILLER WEED, BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BILL YODER​

by Janine King - Mary Yoder’s sister

Colchicine is most commonly known as a medication for gout, but in its more concentrated form, is used in agriculture to enhance crop growth. It is also used as an agent to grow highly potent marijuana. Marijuana seeds treated with Colchicine undergo a genetic mutation that yields all female plants with extremely high levels of THC. We sisters had firsthand knowledge that in the 1980’s Bill grew a crop of “killer weed”. That’s what we called it because it was so potent. We knew of the process he used because Mary described it to us. We were not familiar with the name Colchicine, but we knew that he had treated the seeds with a chemical substance that genetically altered them to produce all female plants. Mary referred to this as Bill’s “special process”. After many hours of research with several people helping, we are unable to find a method of marijuana growing like the one she described, that does not involve Colchicine.

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Polyploid types are labeled according to the number of chromosome sets in the nucleus. The letter x is used to represent the number of chromosomes in a single set:

• haploid (one set; 1x), for example male European fire ants
• diploid (two sets; 2x), for example humans and unaltered cannabis (usually)
• triploid (three sets; 3x), for example sterile saffron crocus, or seedless watermelons, also common in the phylum Tardigrada[7]
• tetraploid (four sets; 4x), for example, Plains viscacha rat, Salmonidae fish,[8] the cotton Gossypium hirsutum[9]
• pentaploid (five sets; 5x), for example Kenai Birch (Betula kenaica)
• hexaploid (six sets; 6x), for example some species of wheat,[10] kiwifruit[11]
• heptaploid or septaploid (seven sets; 7x)
• octaploid or octoploid, (eight sets; 8x), for example Acipenser (genus of sturgeon fish), dahlias
• decaploid (ten sets; 10x), for example certain strawberries
• dodecaploid or duodecaploid (twelve sets; 12x), for example the plants Celosia argentea and Spartina anglica [12] or the amphibian Xenopus ruwenzoriensis.
• Forty-four sets; 44x, for example black mulberry[13]

Cannabis 1980's
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8234880/
View attachment 18889629

Polyploid Cannabis. What is polyploid cannabis?

Read on to find out more about polyploid cannabis. Polyploid cannabis is being researched to see if it can improve yield or potency of the final harvest.

dutch-passion.com

View attachment 18889631
Figure 2
Ploidy identification by flow cytometry and chromosome squashes. Flow cytometric analysis of (A) a diploid C. sativa ‘Stem Cell CBG’ shown with the internal standard, (B) diploid, triploid, and tetraploid F1 hybrids, and (C) a tetraploid F1 hybrid and internal standard. Chromosome squash of (D) a diploid C. sativa ‘Stem Cell CBG’ (2n = 2x = 20), (E) a triploid ‘Stem Cell CBG Seedless’ (2n = 3x = 30), and (F) a tetraploid F1 hybrid (2n = 4x = 40). Internal standard (standard) = QA reference beads UV bright 3 μm (Quantum Analysis GmbH, Münster, Germany). Bar = 10 µm.

My buddy was telling me about this the other day, he made a cool mutant back in the day, going to send him this link, thanks for sharing....Edit: By the way Acespicoli, awesome information thankyou

 

[acespicoli]

Best Product Terpene Preservation (comments ideas welcome)

Bentonite clay in the bottom of the paper bag covered with a few paper towels
and a electronic humidity sensor for the very humid areas. Some RH% to target
Then glass jar cure, UV degrades product the sun can give your canna a nice gold color in a very short time
>>>Best>ibes

 

[acespicoli]

How Plants and Mycorrhizae Help Each Other​

The roots of plants need to be in direct contact with the individual soil particles to really benefit from nutrients in the soil. The problem is, plant roots are relatively large in comparison with the tiny particles of soil. The tiny hyphae of the mycorrhizae are so tiny that they can cover every bit of soil and squeeze in between the tiny particles. An increased coverage of surface area allows the plant to access more of the nutrients than they could get with just their roots. The mycorrhizae pick up nutrients from the soil and deliver them back to the roots of the plant.
So what do the mycorrhizae get out of the relationship? Plants produce their own food through photosynthesis. Excess carbohydrates that are produced by plants are sent to the roots. From there, the mycorrhizae are able to gain access to these excess nutrients from the plant. Mycorrhizae can pull some nutrients from the soil but they really rely on plants to help them out to get all the nutrients they need.

Mycorrhizal Fungi for Cannabis​

Rhizophagus irregularis is a species of mycorrhizal fungus. It is a beneficial fungus that is specific to and the very best for cannabis. Both hemp and marijuana profit from its use. The fungal hyphae attach themselves to the roots of the cannabis plant. This can effectively triple the root mass of the plant. The fungal hyphae extend out and basically extend the root system of the cannabis plant. It’s a win-win situation! The plants get access to more minerals and nutrients than it would have gotten without the fungus. The fungus gets more carbohydrates that it wants and needs to grow. So both the roots and fungus will grow larger, and larger roots means bigger, more robust plants with better yields.

Live spores are the best source for mycorrhizal fungi for the best success. Use live spores blended into earthworm castings. Then apply the castings and mycorrhizae directly on the roots every time you repot the plants. You can also blend this mixture into the top layer of the soil or put it directly in a planting hole. The spores will be the most beneficial when they can come into direct contact with the roots of the cannabis plant.

Buy Rhizophagus Intraradices Product Online | Universal Microbes

Boost plant growth with Rhizophagus Intraradices! Buy online now for healthier, thriving plants. Harness the power of beneficial microbes.

www.universalmicrobes.com

 

[Verdant Whisperer]

How Plants and Mycorrhizae Help Each Other​

The roots of plants need to be in direct contact with the individual soil particles to really benefit from nutrients in the soil. The problem is, plant roots are relatively large in comparison with the tiny particles of soil. The tiny hyphae of the mycorrhizae are so tiny that they can cover every bit of soil and squeeze in between the tiny particles. An increased coverage of surface area allows the plant to access more of the nutrients than they could get with just their roots. The mycorrhizae pick up nutrients from the soil and deliver them back to the roots of the plant.
So what do the mycorrhizae get out of the relationship? Plants produce their own food through photosynthesis. Excess carbohydrates that are produced by plants are sent to the roots. From there, the mycorrhizae are able to gain access to these excess nutrients from the plant. Mycorrhizae can pull some nutrients from the soil but they really rely on plants to help them out to get all the nutrients they need.

Mycorrhizal Fungi for Cannabis​

Rhizophagus irregularis is a species of mycorrhizal fungus. It is a beneficial fungus that is specific to and the very best for cannabis. Both hemp and marijuana profit from its use. The fungal hyphae attach themselves to the roots of the cannabis plant. This can effectively triple the root mass of the plant. The fungal hyphae extend out and basically extend the root system of the cannabis plant. It’s a win-win situation! The plants get access to more minerals and nutrients than it would have gotten without the fungus. The fungus gets more carbohydrates that it wants and needs to grow. So both the roots and fungus will grow larger, and larger roots means bigger, more robust plants with better yields.

Live spores are the best source for mycorrhizal fungi for the best success. Use live spores blended into earthworm castings. Then apply the castings and mycorrhizae directly on the roots every time you repot the plants. You can also blend this mixture into the top layer of the soil or put it directly in a planting hole. The spores will be the most beneficial when they can come into direct contact with the roots of the cannabis plant.

Buy Rhizophagus Intraradices Product Online | Universal Microbes

Boost plant growth with Rhizophagus Intraradices! Buy online now for healthier, thriving plants. Harness the power of beneficial microbes.

www.universalmicrobes.com

I read a while back its best to introuduce mycorrhizae before introducing tricoderma fungi, its said that the tricoderma fungi are too large compared to the mycorrhizae and if the tricodermas are already established its hard for the mycorrhizae to establish. it said that if the mycorrhizae are already established they live in harmanony with tricoderma thats introudced after mycorrhizae is established, does any1 know experience using both ingredients seperately? looking for more info on this, thankyou.

 

[sublingual]

I read a while back its best to introuduce mycorrhizae before introducing tricoderma fungi, its said that the tricoderma fungi are too large compared to the mycorrhizae and if the tricodermas are already established its hard for the mycorrhizae to establish. it said that if the mycorrhizae are already established they live in harmanony with tricoderma thats introudced after mycorrhizae is established, does any1 know experience using both ingredients seperately? looking for more info on this, thankyou.

Please post up if you find your answer either in this thread, or start your own with topic in title. What trichoderma are you using? I was under the impression that coco contains trichoderma already and didn't supplement. What are your thoughts, if any on this claim? Did you run a petri sample of the product you are using?

 

[Verdant Whisperer]

Please post up if you find your answer either in this thread, or start your own with topic in title. What trichoderma are you using? I was under the impression that coco contains trichoderma already and didn't supplement. What are your thoughts, if any on this claim? Did you run a petri sample of the product you are using?

"The application of mycorrhizae as early as possible in the plant cycle is recommended, allowing it to establish between 2 and 4 weeks before other applications such as Trichoderma, bacillus subtilis." - https://doraagri.com/trichoderma-and-mycorrhizae/
So I came across a study I think it was done in India around 2 years ago or so, i am having trouble finding it again, but it basically said if you have a soil where the Trichoderma are already present and established strong, there are not sufficient resources for the mycorrhizae to get established so basically they out compete the mycorrhizae and don't give it the opportunity to get established on the plants roots good( an example would be trying to start a seedling in a patch of thick brush...its not going to have enough light or airflow to get established*. The Trichoderma are a lot bigger than mycorrhizae. the way the article explained it is that mycorrhizae needs to be established first before adding Trichoderma, if the mycorrhizae is already established they have a symbiotic relationship when introducing Trichoderma later on. they both have relationships with the roots but are different: ALSO* Coco should not naturally have tricoderma its assocaited with soils, not the shells of a coconut*
Association with Plant Roots:

• Trichoderma:
  • Trichoderma species do not form symbiotic relationships with plant roots in the same way mycorrhizae do. They primarily interact with the root zone but are not internal to the root cells.
  • They can colonize the rhizosphere and establish beneficial associations with plants by promoting growth, aiding nutrient uptake, and offering protection against pathogens.
• Mycorrhizae:
  • Mycorrhizal fungi form intimate, mutually beneficial relationships with plant roots. They penetrate the root cells to form specialized structures like arbuscules (in arbuscular mycorrhizae) or sheaths (in ectomycorrhizae).
  • This internal association allows mycorrhizal fungi to exchange nutrients (such as phosphorus) with the host plant, enhancing the plant's ability to absorb and utilize essential elements.

Gave ai the basics and had it come up with this if it helps i think for outdoor specifically this is the best call:

Maximizing Plant Health: Synergizing Mycorrhizae and Trichoderma Treatments

Introduction
Starting plants in pots before transplanting them into the field is a common practice in agriculture. This method allows for better control over early growth stages and ensures that plants are well-established before facing the challenges of the field environment. Incorporating beneficial fungi, such as mycorrhizae and Trichoderma, during this initial growth phase can have profound positive effects on plant health and productivity.

Establishing Mycorrhizae: A Foundation for Plant Success
Mycorrhizae are crucial partners for plants, forming mutually beneficial relationships that enhance nutrient uptake and improve stress tolerance. It is recommended to introduce mycorrhizae early in the plant cycle, allowing them 2 to 4 weeks to establish before other applications like Trichoderma or bacillus subtilis. This foundational step is paramount in ensuring that mycorrhizae have the opportunity to develop a strong symbiotic bond with plant roots.

The Trichoderma Challenge
A critical consideration when incorporating both mycorrhizae and Trichoderma is understanding their respective roles and potential interactions. Trichoderma, known for its biocontrol properties and promotion of growth, can be highly competitive in the rhizosphere due to its larger size and robust nature. In soil environments where Trichoderma is already well-established, mycorrhizae may face challenges in establishing themselves. This is akin to trying to start a seedling in an area with dense vegetation, where limited light and airflow hinder its growth.

The Sequential Approach: Mycorrhizae First
To maximize the benefits of both mycorrhizae and Trichoderma, it is advisable to introduce mycorrhizae during the early stages of plant growth, such as in the potting phase. Allowing mycorrhizae to establish in this controlled environment provides them with the best opportunity to form a strong and mutually beneficial relationship with the plant's roots.

Transplanting into a Trichoderma-Enriched Field
After the mycorrhizae have had the chance to establish themselves, transplanting the seedlings into a field treated with Trichoderma becomes an ideal next step. The established mycorrhizal network can serve as a foundation, allowing for a smoother integration of Trichoderma. The distinct roles of these beneficial fungi can then synergize: mycorrhizae enhancing nutrient uptake and stress tolerance, while Trichoderma provides biocontrol against pathogens and promotes overall plant health.

Conclusion
Balancing the introduction of mycorrhizae and Trichoderma is crucial for maximizing their benefits without causing competition. Starting with mycorrhizae in the early stages of plant growth, followed by introducing Trichoderma in the field, sets the stage for a harmonious symbiotic relationship. This strategic approach enhances nutrient uptake, promotes plant growth, and provides robust protection against pathogens, ultimately leading to healthier and more productive crops. Remember, in coco-based substrates, Trichoderma may not naturally occur, emphasizing the importance of thoughtful introduction for optimal results in the field.

 

[sublingual]

Thanks Whisperer, that was really informative. I heard that the shelf life is only six months and one needs to know the expiration date. On Amazon they have reviews by guys that called out certain suppliers after they raised the spores in petri dishes. Do you use a certain brand?

 

[acespicoli]

Frontiers | Optimisation of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium for Soilless Production of Cannabis sativa in the Flowering Stage Using Response Surface Analysis

Following legalisation, cannabis has quickly become an important horticultural crop in Canada and increasingly so in other parts of the world. However, due t...

www.frontiersin.org

20% decrease in roots and a 40% increase in shoot and root​

Based on the results of this study, we recommend providing plants with a nutrient solution containing N and P at approximately ​

N 194 mg L–1 and 59 mg L–1, K 175-240 mg L–1​

N - P - K
194-59-200

414 (almost ideal) in DWC atleast

Tree & Shrub Mix 4-2-4

downtoeartheugene.com

Bat Guano 7-3-1

downtoeartheugene.com

Kelp Meal 1-0.1-2

downtoeartheugene.com

Langbeinite Kmag 0-0-22

downtoeartheugene.com

7.3.1
1.01.2
0.00.22 Reduced as needed
8-3.1-8

Bat - Kelp - Langbeinite

 

[acespicoli]

@pipeline thanks for sharing this

 

[Verdant Whisperer]

Terpene Production in Cannabis under Drought Stress
Introduction:
Drought stress in cannabis plants can significantly impact the production of terpenes, the aromatic compounds responsible for the plant's flavor, aroma, and effects. This stress-induced alteration in terpene composition varies based on factors such as stress duration, cannabis variety, and flowering stage. Consequently, providing a definitive answer to which terpenes increase or decrease under drought stress proves challenging. However, studies have shed light on potential shifts in terpene profiles. This discussion delves into the intricate relationship between drought stress and terpene production in cannabis, offering valuable insights into the plant's adaptive mechanisms. Additionally, plants generally grown with less stress have more relaxing and energetic effects, while strains grown in stressful environments have more psychoactive and sedating effects. Additionally, it is worth noting that drought stress has also been observed to lead to an increase in Cannabigerol (CBG) levels, further emphasizing the complex biochemical responses elicited by this environmental factor.


Increased Terpenes:

1. Beta-pinene (Humidity Aid) - More water soluble than its alpha counterpart, associated with strains from drier conditions. Aids in efficient humidity absorption.
2. Myrcene (Stress Reduction) - Linked with inducing a calming presence on the plant, slowing growth to focus on preservation rather than growth. Acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from oxidative stress caused by drought.

• Stress Response Mechanism: Plants produce myrcene in response to environmental stressors for adaptation and survival.
• Enzyme Activity: Drought stress may alter enzyme activity involved in terpene biosynthesis, potentially leading to increased myrcene production.
• Genetic Regulation: Drought stress may induce specific genes involved in terpene biosynthesis, particularly those associated with myrcene production.

1. Limonene (Nature's Sunscreen) - Increases as the plant becomes drier, acting as a natural UV protectant.
2. Caryophyllene (Nature's Analgesic) - Numbs the plant, keeping it in an improved state during drought stress.
3. Humulene (Nature's Appetite Suppressant) - Regulates plant metabolism to suppress appetite during drought stress.

Decreased Terpenes:

1. Alpha-pinene (Humidity Shield) - Less water soluble, helping plants avoid excessive humidity in moist environments.
2. Linalool (Happy Plant Terpene) - Linked with enhancing photosynthesis, which is not required during drought stress. Also associated with anti-stress and calming effects.
3. Terpinolene (Regulates Inflammation) - More common in less stressed plants, associated with increased growth(Inflammation) by balancing inflammation with its anti-inflammatory properties.

Ocimene (Pathway Opener) - Associated with a sweet, citrusy aroma, potential antibacterial and antifungal properties. Linked with increased creativity in humans.

• Observation: Elevated levels of ocimene lead to larger, more open structures in plants. Suggesting more open and efficient energy pathways.

Nerolidol (Absorbtion Enhancer)- Enhances absorption of nutrients in leaves and plant surface, associated with plants with higher humidity to maximize nutrient Absorbtion. plants under drought stress have no need for this terpene.
Farnesene - Further research is needed to establish correlations.
Genetic Regulation and Hormonal Response:

• Genetic Regulation: Stress triggers a complex genetic response, activating or suppressing specific genes for various physiological processes.
• Terpene Biosynthesis Genes: Genes involved in terpene production are directly regulated within the plant's genome.
• Phytohormones (e.g., ABA, JA, ET): Signaling molecules that regulate growth, development, and stress responses. They play a crucial role in drought stress responses.
• Gene Expression and Terpene Synthesis: Upregulation of genes involved in terpene biosynthesis is influenced by phytohormones associated with drought stress.
• Specific Hormonal Signaling: Phytohormones like ABA may modulate the expression of genes involved in terpene synthesis, potentially leading to increased myrcene concentration in drought-stressed cannabis plants.

References:

1. Study on Drought Stress Effects on Cannabis
2. Tips for Controlled Drought Stress in Cannabis

 

[Verdant Whisperer]

HORMONAL REGULATION IN CANNABIS CULTIVATION: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE​

Identifying Plant Characteristics Based on Hormone Levels

Cytokinin's

• Growth Patterns:

• High Cytokinins: Plants with higher levels of cytokinins may exhibit vigorous and balanced growth, with healthy leaves, branches, and overall structure.
• Low Cytokinins: Lower levels of cytokinins might lead to slower or more stunted growth, especially in terms of lateral branching.

• Leaf Size and Shape:

• High Cytokinins: Leaves may be larger and exhibit more vigorous growth with fewer signs of stress.
• Low Cytokinins: Leaves may be smaller, and there might be signs of stress such as yellowing or curling.

• Flower Initiation:

• High Cytokinins: Plants with ample cytokinins are more likely to transition smoothly into the flowering phase with a balanced ratio of vegetative and reproductive growth.
• Low Cytokinins: Lower cytokinins might lead to delayed or less synchronized flowering.

• Bud Formation:

• High Cytokinins: A balanced cytokinin level can contribute to the development of healthy, well-formed buds.
• Low Cytokinins: Insufficient cytokinins might lead to smaller or less developed buds.

• Trichome Production:

• High Cytokinins: Proper cytokinin levels may lead to an abundance of trichomes, which contain many of the oils and terpenes.
• Low Cytokinins: Inadequate cytokinins could potentially lead to reduced trichome production.

• Overall Plant Health:

• High Cytokinins: Healthy, vibrant foliage and a balanced appearance may indicate sufficient cytokinin levels.
• Low Cytokinins: Stressed or struggling plants might suggest that cytokinins are not at an optimal level.

Gibberellins

• Stem Elongation:

• High Gibberellins: Plants with elevated levels of gibberellins tend to have longer internodal spacing and overall taller growth.
• Low Gibberellins: Reduced gibberellin levels lead to a more compact plant structure with shorter internodes.

• Leaf Size and Shape:

• High Gibberellins: Leaves may be larger, and there may be a more pronounced separation between nodes.
• Low Gibberellins: Smaller leaves with less distinct node separation may indicate lower gibberellin levels.

• Flower Initiation:

• High Gibberellins: Plants with ample gibberellins are more likely to transition into the flowering phase with elongated stems and branches.
• Low Gibberellins: Reduced gibberellin levels might lead to a more compact flowering structure.

• Overall Plant Height:

• High Gibberellins: Plants with higher levels of gibberellins tend to be taller with more stretched-out growth.
• Low Gibberellins: Reduced gibberellin levels may result in shorter, more compact plants.

Auxins

• Apical Dominance:

• High Auxins: Plants with higher levels of auxins tend to exhibit stronger apical dominance, resulting in longer internodal spacing and a dominant central stem.
• Low Auxins: Reduced auxin levels may lead to weaker apical dominance, allowing for more lateral growth and branching.

• Leaf Position and Growth:

• High Auxins: Leaves may be positioned more closely along the stem, with strong vertical growth.
• Low Auxins: Leaves may be spaced farther apart along the stem, with potentially more lateral growth.

• Root Development:

• High Auxins: Elevated levels of auxins can promote root development, leading to a robust root system.
• Low Auxins: Reduced auxin levels may result in slower or less extensive root growth.

• Overall Plant Structure:

• High Auxins: Plants with ample auxin levels may exhibit a more vertically oriented growth pattern with a dominant main stem.
• Low Auxins: Reduced auxin levels could lead to a more bushy or spreading growth pattern.

• Flower Initiation:

• High Auxins: Adequate auxin levels are important for transitioning from vegetative growth to flowering, ensuring a balanced reproductive phase.
• Low Auxins: Insufficient auxin levels may lead to delayed or less synchronized flowering.

• Leaf Health and Growth Rate:

• High Auxins: Leaves may be larger and exhibit more vigorous growth with fewer signs of stress.
• Low Auxins: Leaves may be smaller, and there might be signs of stress such as yellowing or curling.

Optimum Hormone Levels for Biomass Production
Achieving maximum biomass in cannabis cultivation requires a delicate balance of key plant hormones.

1. Cytokinins:

• Moderate Levels: Maintaining a moderate level of cytokinins promotes balanced growth, resulting in robust foliage and sturdy branches conducive to biomass production.

1. Gibberellins:

• Moderate Levels: Keeping gibberellin levels in moderation allows for controlled stem elongation, contributing to a healthy, well-structured plant ideal for biomass accumulation.

1. Auxins:

• Moderate Levels: Adequate auxin levels encourage a balanced development of roots, stems, and leaves, supporting overall plant vigor and biomass production.

Optimum Hormone Levels for Oil Production
For higher oil production, a different hormonal balance is required, emphasizing the synthesis of valuable cannabinoids and terpenes.

1. Cytokinins:

• Low Levels: Restricting cytokinin levels redirects resources towards oil production, leading to higher concentrations of cannabinoids and terpenes in the final product.

1. Gibberellins:

• Low Levels: Reduced gibberellin levels result in a more compact plant structure, focusing resources on the synthesis of oils and terpenes rather than excessive stem growth.

1. Auxins:

• Moderate Levels: Maintaining moderate auxin levels ensures a balanced transition from vegetative growth to flowering, crucial for the development of oil-rich trichomes.

Hormonal Influence on Flowering Times:
Shorter Flowering (High Gibberellins, Low Auxins, Low Cytokinins):

• Auxins: Low levels reduce apical dominance, leading to shorter internode lengths and accelerated growth.
• Gibberellins: Elevated levels promote stem elongation, resulting in taller plants.
• Cytokinins: Diminished levels lead to fewer cell division processes, culminating in shorter flowering times.

Longer Flowering (Low Gibberellins, High Auxins, High Cytokinins):

• Auxins: Higher levels contribute to augmented apical dominance, leading to longer internode lengths and an extended vegetative phase.
• Gibberellins: Reduced levels lead to limited stem elongation, resulting in a more compact structure.
• Cytokinins: Elevated levels are pivotal in promoting cell division, extending the flowering phase.

Cytotoxic Terpenes, Cannabis Defense Mechanisms, and Cytokinins:

• All Monoterpenes have varying levels of cytotoxic effects, aiding in plant defense.
• Elevated cytokinin's correlate with increased production of cytotoxic terpenes, highlighting the balance between hormonal regulation and defense mechanisms.